Categories of shipping prevention costs in Arctic shipping
| Categories | Explanation or examples | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Costs of safety-related infrastructures and facilities (C1) | Icebreakers (C11) | Cost of the procurement of icebreakers and maintenance | Drewniak et al. (2021), Dalaklis et al. (2018b) |
| Ports and hydrographic survey (C12) | It includes investments in safety-related facilities in ports and facilities for hydrographic survey | Lajeunesse (2021), Wang et al. (2019) | |
| Ice Class Ships (C13) | The added cost of Ice Class ships (“Cost of Ice”) and maintenance costs | Sibul and Jin (2021), Gao and Erokhin (2019) | |
| Search and Rescue facilities (C14) | SAR coordination centers, rescue vessels, aircraft/helicopters, medical facilities | Dalaklis et al. (2018b), Buixadé Farré et al. (2014), Mikhailova and Tabata (2024) | |
| Communication and navigation facilities (C15) | Radio stations; DGPS stations, signal-enhancing stations, navigation aids (e.g. beacons, lighted marks, buoys) | Milaković et al. (2018), Kvamstad et al. (2009) | |
| Oil spill response facilities (C16) | Clean-up equipment depots, oil spill response equipment | Dimitrios et al. (2022), Lajeunesse et al. (2011) | |
| Costs of safety measures (C2) | Icebreaker assistance and pilotage (C21) | Icebreaking fee and pilotage fee | Rajagopal and Zhang (2021), Liu et al. (2016) |
| Communication and navigation service (C22) | Costs of communication and navigation services | Borisova et al. (2020), Tseng and Cullinane (2018) | |
| Weather and ice information service (C23) | Costs of weather and ice information services (e.g. weather analysis, ice prediction) | Wang et al. (2018), Østreng et al. (2013a) | |
| Insurance (C24) | Insurance premium for crew and vessel | Lajeunesse et al. (2011), Verny and Grigentin (2009) | |
| Other prevention and mitigation measures (C25) | Equipment and measures required by Arctic Coastal States regulations, owner’s voluntary safety measures | Zhang and Zhao (2015) | |
| Safety costs of personnel (C3) | Seafarers with Arctic experience (C31) | Additional wages paid to seafarers with more Arctic experience and costs of additional crew member | Lasserre (2014), Shou and Feng (2015) |
| Ice pilots (C32) | Wages paid to ice pilots | Milaković et al. (2018) | |
| Safety inspectors and safety administration staff (C33) | Wages paid to safety inspectors and safety staff (e.g. internal safety inspectors, Port States inspectors) | Chircop et al. (2018), Fedi et al. (2018) | |
| Emergency response and SAR personnel (C34) | Wages paid to emergency response and SAR personnel | Benz et al. (2021), Byers and Covey (2019) | |
| Training for personnel (C35) | Costs of training for personnel (e.g. seafarers, ice pilots, safety inspectors, SAR personnel) | Khan et al. (2020), Fedi et al. (2020), Larsson et al. (2018) | |
| Personal protective equipment (C36) | Costs of PPE for work personnel | Power et al. (2016) | |
| Costs of new technologies (C4) | Communication and navigation technologies (C41) | Ship navigation positioning techniques such as GNSS, anti-jamming techniques | Wang et al. (2021), Reid et al. (2020) |
| Ice monitoring and weather forecasting techniques (C42) | Ice forecasting technologies developed by NOAA (e.g. data assimilation, model experiments) | Zhang et al. (2019) | |
| Drones and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (C43) | The techniques of using drones for ice monitoring and navigation assistance and using AUVs for hydrographic survey | Johansson et al. (2023) | |
| Artificial intelligence and big data analytics (C44) | Using big data analytics to provide accurate dynamic Arctic weather and sea ice forecasting | Dalaklis et al. (2023b), Dimitrios (2022) | |
| Other technologies (C45) | Anti-icing solutions, icebreaking technology, and oil spill response technology | Winkler and Jahre-Nilsen (2018) | |
| Costs of safety management (C5) | Safety inspections and audits (C51) | Polar Code and Class Survey, Port States Control Inspections, Flag States Inspections | Brazovskaya (2021), Knapp et al. (2011) |
| Safety awards and incentives (C52) | Safety awards for outstanding companies, safety incentive programs for employee | Tait and Walker (2000) | |
| Safety meetings and drills (C53) | Safety committee meetings, SAR operation drills, oil spill response drills | Lambach (2020), ILO (2015) | |
| Costs of regulatory administration (C54) | Administrative costs (e.g. Arctic Port States MoU, Arctic Coast Guard Forum) | Ocean Conservancy (2017) | |
| Categories | Explanation or examples | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Costs of safety-related infrastructures and facilities (C1) | Icebreakers (C11) | Cost of the procurement of icebreakers and maintenance | |
| Ports and hydrographic survey (C12) | It includes investments in safety-related facilities in ports and facilities for hydrographic survey | ||
| Ice Class Ships (C13) | The added cost of Ice Class ships (“Cost of Ice”) and maintenance costs | ||
| Search and Rescue facilities (C14) | SAR coordination centers, rescue vessels, aircraft/helicopters, medical facilities | ||
| Communication and navigation facilities (C15) | Radio stations; DGPS stations, signal-enhancing stations, navigation aids (e.g. beacons, lighted marks, buoys) | ||
| Oil spill response facilities (C16) | Clean-up equipment depots, oil spill response equipment | ||
| Costs of safety measures (C2) | Icebreaker assistance and pilotage (C21) | Icebreaking fee and pilotage fee | |
| Communication and navigation service (C22) | Costs of communication and navigation services | ||
| Weather and ice information service (C23) | Costs of weather and ice information services (e.g. weather analysis, ice prediction) | ||
| Insurance (C24) | Insurance premium for crew and vessel | ||
| Other prevention and mitigation measures (C25) | Equipment and measures required by Arctic Coastal States regulations, owner’s voluntary safety measures | ||
| Safety costs of personnel (C3) | Seafarers with Arctic experience (C31) | Additional wages paid to seafarers with more Arctic experience and costs of additional crew member | |
| Ice pilots (C32) | Wages paid to ice pilots | ||
| Safety inspectors and safety administration staff (C33) | Wages paid to safety inspectors and safety staff (e.g. internal safety inspectors, Port States inspectors) | ||
| Emergency response and SAR personnel (C34) | Wages paid to emergency response and SAR personnel | ||
| Training for personnel (C35) | Costs of training for personnel (e.g. seafarers, ice pilots, safety inspectors, SAR personnel) | ||
| Personal protective equipment (C36) | Costs of PPE for work personnel | ||
| Costs of new technologies (C4) | Communication and navigation technologies (C41) | Ship navigation positioning techniques such as GNSS, anti-jamming techniques | |
| Ice monitoring and weather forecasting techniques (C42) | Ice forecasting technologies developed by NOAA (e.g. data assimilation, model experiments) | ||
| Drones and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (C43) | The techniques of using drones for ice monitoring and navigation assistance and using AUVs for hydrographic survey | ||
| Artificial intelligence and big data analytics (C44) | Using big data analytics to provide accurate dynamic Arctic weather and sea ice forecasting | ||
| Other technologies (C45) | Anti-icing solutions, icebreaking technology, and oil spill response technology | ||
| Costs of safety management (C5) | Safety inspections and audits (C51) | Polar Code and Class Survey, Port States Control Inspections, Flag States Inspections | |
| Safety awards and incentives (C52) | Safety awards for outstanding companies, safety incentive programs for employee | ||
| Safety meetings and drills (C53) | Safety committee meetings, SAR operation drills, oil spill response drills | ||
| Costs of regulatory administration (C54) | Administrative costs (e.g. Arctic Port States MoU, Arctic Coast Guard Forum) | ||
Source(s): The authors
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