Table A1 Overview of expected public...

Table A1

Overview of expected public values arising from the application of blockchain technology

Public value dimension	Public values	Sample quotations
Internal	Security	“The system provides a strong level of security thanks to the use of a decentralized network of notaries’ servers, which creates a trust machine that makes it virtually impossible to manipulate voting results.” “[S]ince transactions on the blockchain are immutable so if someone wants to try and change the data, they would have to break into six different data bases, making it is nearly impossible to hack.”
	Efficiency (internal)	“The new model will eliminate unnecessary bureaucracy, while ensuring more efficient registration and support services for companies within the country.” “To simplify and speed up access to the tender by removing more than 70% of the administrative steps.”
	Cooperativeness	“Blockchain offers the opportunity to connect more quickly and reliably with various parties within healthcare and support.” “[U]se case for the improvement of data sharing with several other governmental organizations in order to improve detection of fraud.”
	Cost-effectiveness	“The platform will enable fast and transparent processes saving cost and time.” “The aim of the project is to realize a more flexible and transparent pension administration system for citizens, while reducing significantly pension management costs.”
	Compliance with the law	“[W]ill enable users to share personal data fully respecting the increasingly stringent European regulatory framework.” “solution aimed to safeguard the rights of data subjects, exploiting the cutting-edge technologies of Smart Contracts and Blockchain, as well as support organizations in data management and processing while ensuring GDPR compliance.”
	Integrity	“A blockchain project developed to safeguard the integrity and accessibility of digital government records of national archives worldwide.” “Validation of provenance and integrity of the data: possibility of tracing the source from which the data comes and its integrity so that it cannot be modified subsequently.”
	Robustness	“The great benefit of a Blockchain solution lies in the creation of consistent and persistent information across organisations on the status of asylum procedures. The involved authorities can also track this status, and it cannot be manipulated.” “APG and PGGM aim to build the pension infrastructure of society: low cost, flexible and robust.”
	Scalability	“Credits claims its services enable a broad range of scalable and interoperable applications.” “Algorand uses a pure Proof-of-Stake (PoS) protocol that guarantees decentralization, scalability and security.”
	Adaptability	“With the appropriate and conscious use of the legal certainty and simplification tools offered by EU and national legislation, with organizational adaptability to changes.” “Security and resilience.”
	Accountability to government	“[E]nsures that public money reserved for a specified purpose is spent exclusively on that purpose.” “[A]llowing the Portuguese public administration (…) to have access to all the diplomas issued by universities that use FenixEdu, within the access limits imposed by students and the schools’ administrations.”
	Stability	“A new RTGS [Real-Time Gross Settlement] service for the U.K.: safeguarding stability, enabling innovation.” “Support the achievement of the government wider policy objectives, especially getting people out of poverty in a sustainable way”
	Innovation	“It identified five key strategic drivers for the new RTGS system in a consultation document, “A new RTGS service for the U.K.: safeguarding stability, enabling innovation” “We regard the innovative form of blockchain-based data notarization as a logical technological advance in times of digitalization (…)”
	Facilitating access	“[A]llowing the Portuguese public administration (…) to have access to all the diplomas issued by universities” “[G]uaranteeing users’ data transportability, the right to access, the right to be forgotten and restriction of the processing of personal data.”
External	Trustworthiness	“[S]hare coronavirus test results in a trusted and digitally secure way.” “[T]he application guarantees transparency and traceability of the digital identity of BIM [Building Information Modelling] files, roles, skills, operations performed on the files and exchange processes, generating trust among all the actors involved.”
	Efficiency (external)	“[L]aunching an initiative that combines bureaucratic simplification with the maintenance of high standards of guarantee of legality and the efficient use of public resources (…)” “It can speed up the existing network of maritime actors with automation and internal algorithms.”
	Accountability	“Its own platform for the traceability of meat and milk via blockchain.” “Proof of concept project to verify the authenticity of its degrees in a matter of seconds rather than several days.”
	Transparency	“The blockchain platform is built on the Hyperledger Fabric framework and aims to increase transparency and efficiency in legal transactions associated with the lifecycle of companies in the registry.” “The use of blockchain technology and smart contracts to increase transparency, speed and trust in property transactions.”
	Protecting citizen privacy	“[I]ncluding any attributes and will enable users to share personal data fully respecting the increasingly stringent European regulatory framework.” “[A] shared ownership in which every change made is seen in real time by everyone and at the same time ensures privacy and incorruptibility of data to the citizens.”
	Enabling self-governance	“This means that course graduates no longer have to rely on the university to verify that they completed the course successfully.” “Aimed to give citizens control of their own data when interacting with online services.”
	Usability	“[W]e intend to provide them with a modern, simple and immediate tool, which can be used anywhere in the world.” “This will make it easier for citizens to use public transportation, and to pay in an easier and more transparent way.”
	Flexibility	“It enables you to purchase gold, silver and platinum based on value rather than weight e.g. £ 25.00 instead of a 1-ounce coin or bar, providing you with control and flexibility.” “We believe in a flexible, open and collaborative approach and are already working effectively with Barclays and RWE npower to develop creative answers to the complex problems faced”
	Quality	“How blockchain technologies can be used to increase the quality of services provided from “Government to Businesses” (G2B) for freight transport in ports and cities.” “Blockchain technology offers great potential for increasing efficiency and ensuring the quality of bank processes.”
	Openness	“Specifically, they looked for a solution that is open source under a permissive license (e.g. Apache 2)” “We believe in a flexible, open and collaborative approach and are already working effectively with Barclays and RWE npower to develop creative answers to the complex problems faced”
	Social cohesion	“Finland, which like many European nations has recently seen a large influx of asylum seekers, is using a cryptographic ledger called blockchain to help them get on their feet faster.” “[I]s to contribute to increasing sustainability, reducing energy poverty and generating an economic cycle with low carbon emissions”
	Cooperativeness	“An application that integrates blockchain technology into the BIM [Building Information Modeling] methodology to create a sharing and collaboration environment managed through the use of smart contracts.” “Using the tool, Roscosmos can reportedly maintain and verify a database of IP data objects as well as coordinate IP experts, such as lawyers, patent specialists and auditors.”
	Effectiveness	“This widens connections and collaboration with all other units and improves effectiveness of criminal investigations.” “[H]elps to be able to work more effectively towards solutions for debt relief (…)”
	Integrity	“They are always given a unique and unalterable timestamp.” “Blockchain thereby guarantees the irrefutability in every step of the procurement process, as everything will be recorded in a transparent and irrefutable manner.”
	Sustainability	“A project called San Marino Low Carbon Ecosystem was implemented which has as its final objective the reduction of CO₂ emissions by focusing on the development of behavioural models aimed at sustainability.” “HotCity’s proof-of-concept involves creating a gamification system to crowdsource hotspots around the city and channel them to provide public heating.”
	Competitiveness	“New procurement strategy in order to radically boost the start-up participation rate and increase the number of purchased innovative solutions.” “Try to ensure that government achieves the best value for money, whilst at the same time applying fair competition and transparency between the participants in the process.”
	Fairness	“[W]hilst at the same time applying fair competition (…)” “With this solution, it has been shown how a blockchain-enabled solution can improve the safety, trust and fairness for different groups of users and organisations.”
	Economy protection	“[P]rotection and promotion of the specialties of our country available to sector operators and citizens.” “[A] well-thought-out system, to defend Made in Italy, the integrity of the products and to protect the brand, to prevent scams and economic damage resulting from adulterations placed on the market.”
Relational	Citizen involvement	“EnergieKnip rewards citizens of Emmen, a municipality of about 100 000 citizens in the northeast of the Netherlands, with digital tokens for anonymously sharing data about energy-saving measures used at home.” “i-Voting is a unique solution that simply and conveniently helps to engage people in the governance process.”
	Democracy	“The goal of building this blockchain-based platform was to make the voting process ‘safer and less susceptible to unnoticed manipulation’.” “The proof of concept also opened a deliberative, participatory process on the politics and economics of data, and how Barcelona could constitute a democratic city data commons.”
	Improve the dialogue	“One of the goals of the PININ project [PIemuNt chèINa] is to improve the dialogue between producers, consumers, wholesalers and retailers and food administration activities such as restaurants.” “A project that strengthens the traceability of Italian PDO [Protected Designation of Origin] and PGI [Protected Geographical Indication] products and offers effective communication to consumers.”
	Openness	“At its core, Blockcerts is open. The software is open source, and anyone is welcome to join the developer community.” “The City of Vienna sees tremendous opportunities for the future of the administrative administration in the currently much discussed blockchain technology. Transparency, openness and participation are the leading motifs for our thoughts and actions concerning the digitization of the city.”
	Creativity	“Creating an opportunity for co-creation between the supply and demand-side before an official tender is submitted.”

Public value dimension	Public values	Sample quotations
Internal	Security	“The system provides a strong level of security thanks to the use of a decentralized network of notaries’ servers, which creates a trust machine that makes it virtually impossible to manipulate voting results.”“[S]ince transactions on the blockchain are immutable so if someone wants to try and change the data, they would have to break into six different data bases, making it is nearly impossible to hack.”
	Efficiency (internal)	“The new model will eliminate unnecessary bureaucracy, while ensuring more efficient registration and support services for companies within the country.”“To simplify and speed up access to the tender by removing more than 70% of the administrative steps.”
	Cooperativeness	“Blockchain offers the opportunity to connect more quickly and reliably with various parties within healthcare and support.”“[U]se case for the improvement of data sharing with several other governmental organizations in order to improve detection of fraud.”
	Cost-effectiveness	“The platform will enable fast and transparent processes saving cost and time.”“The aim of the project is to realize a more flexible and transparent pension administration system for citizens, while reducing significantly pension management costs.”
	Compliance with the law	“[W]ill enable users to share personal data fully respecting the increasingly stringent European regulatory framework.”“solution aimed to safeguard the rights of data subjects, exploiting the cutting-edge technologies of Smart Contracts and Blockchain, as well as support organizations in data management and processing while ensuring GDPR compliance.”
	Integrity	“A blockchain project developed to safeguard the integrity and accessibility of digital government records of national archives worldwide.”“Validation of provenance and integrity of the data: possibility of tracing the source from which the data comes and its integrity so that it cannot be modified subsequently.”
	Robustness	“The great benefit of a Blockchain solution lies in the creation of consistent and persistent information across organisations on the status of asylum procedures. The involved authorities can also track this status, and it cannot be manipulated.”“APG and PGGM aim to build the pension infrastructure of society: low cost, flexible and robust.”
	Scalability	“Credits claims its services enable a broad range of scalable and interoperable applications.”“Algorand uses a pure Proof-of-Stake (PoS) protocol that guarantees decentralization, scalability and security.”
	Adaptability	“With the appropriate and conscious use of the legal certainty and simplification tools offered by EU and national legislation, with organizational adaptability to changes.”“Security and resilience.”
	Accountability to government	“[E]nsures that public money reserved for a specified purpose is spent exclusively on that purpose.”“[A]llowing the Portuguese public administration (…) to have access to all the diplomas issued by universities that use FenixEdu, within the access limits imposed by students and the schools’ administrations.”
	Stability	“A new RTGS [Real-Time Gross Settlement] service for the U.K.: safeguarding stability, enabling innovation.”“Support the achievement of the government wider policy objectives, especially getting people out of poverty in a sustainable way”
	Innovation	“It identified five key strategic drivers for the new RTGS system in a consultation document, “A new RTGS service for the U.K.: safeguarding stability, enabling innovation”“We regard the innovative form of blockchain-based data notarization as a logical technological advance in times of digitalization (…)”
	Facilitating access	“[A]llowing the Portuguese public administration (…) to have access to all the diplomas issued by universities”“[G]uaranteeing users’ data transportability, the right to access, the right to be forgotten and restriction of the processing of personal data.”
External	Trustworthiness	“[S]hare coronavirus test results in a trusted and digitally secure way.”“[T]he application guarantees transparency and traceability of the digital identity of BIM [Building Information Modelling] files, roles, skills, operations performed on the files and exchange processes, generating trust among all the actors involved.”
	Efficiency (external)	“[L]aunching an initiative that combines bureaucratic simplification with the maintenance of high standards of guarantee of legality and the efficient use of public resources (…)”“It can speed up the existing network of maritime actors with automation and internal algorithms.”
	Accountability	“Its own platform for the traceability of meat and milk via blockchain.”“Proof of concept project to verify the authenticity of its degrees in a matter of seconds rather than several days.”
	Transparency	“The blockchain platform is built on the Hyperledger Fabric framework and aims to increase transparency and efficiency in legal transactions associated with the lifecycle of companies in the registry.”“The use of blockchain technology and smart contracts to increase transparency, speed and trust in property transactions.”
	Protecting citizen privacy	“[I]ncluding any attributes and will enable users to share personal data fully respecting the increasingly stringent European regulatory framework.”“[A] shared ownership in which every change made is seen in real time by everyone and at the same time ensures privacy and incorruptibility of data to the citizens.”
	Enabling self-governance	“This means that course graduates no longer have to rely on the university to verify that they completed the course successfully.”“Aimed to give citizens control of their own data when interacting with online services.”
	Usability	“[W]e intend to provide them with a modern, simple and immediate tool, which can be used anywhere in the world.”“This will make it easier for citizens to use public transportation, and to pay in an easier and more transparent way.”
	Flexibility	“It enables you to purchase gold, silver and platinum based on value rather than weight e.g. £ 25.00 instead of a 1-ounce coin or bar, providing you with control and flexibility.”“We believe in a flexible, open and collaborative approach and are already working effectively with Barclays and RWE npower to develop creative answers to the complex problems faced”
	Quality	“How blockchain technologies can be used to increase the quality of services provided from “Government to Businesses” (G2B) for freight transport in ports and cities.”“Blockchain technology offers great potential for increasing efficiency and ensuring the quality of bank processes.”
	Openness	“Specifically, they looked for a solution that is open source under a permissive license (e.g. Apache 2)”“We believe in a flexible, open and collaborative approach and are already working effectively with Barclays and RWE npower to develop creative answers to the complex problems faced”
	Social cohesion	“Finland, which like many European nations has recently seen a large influx of asylum seekers, is using a cryptographic ledger called blockchain to help them get on their feet faster.”“[I]s to contribute to increasing sustainability, reducing energy poverty and generating an economic cycle with low carbon emissions”
	Cooperativeness	“An application that integrates blockchain technology into the BIM [Building Information Modeling] methodology to create a sharing and collaboration environment managed through the use of smart contracts.”“Using the tool, Roscosmos can reportedly maintain and verify a database of IP data objects as well as coordinate IP experts, such as lawyers, patent specialists and auditors.”
	Effectiveness	“This widens connections and collaboration with all other units and improves effectiveness of criminal investigations.”“[H]elps to be able to work more effectively towards solutions for debt relief (…)”
	Integrity	“They are always given a unique and unalterable timestamp.”“Blockchain thereby guarantees the irrefutability in every step of the procurement process, as everything will be recorded in a transparent and irrefutable manner.”
	Sustainability	“A project called San Marino Low Carbon Ecosystem was implemented which has as its final objective the reduction of CO₂ emissions by focusing on the development of behavioural models aimed at sustainability.”“HotCity’s proof-of-concept involves creating a gamification system to crowdsource hotspots around the city and channel them to provide public heating.”
	Competitiveness	“New procurement strategy in order to radically boost the start-up participation rate and increase the number of purchased innovative solutions.”“Try to ensure that government achieves the best value for money, whilst at the same time applying fair competition and transparency between the participants in the process.”
	Fairness	“[W]hilst at the same time applying fair competition (…)”“With this solution, it has been shown how a blockchain-enabled solution can improve the safety, trust and fairness for different groups of users and organisations.”
	Economy protection	“[P]rotection and promotion of the specialties of our country available to sector operators and citizens.”“[A] well-thought-out system, to defend Made in Italy, the integrity of the products and to protect the brand, to prevent scams and economic damage resulting from adulterations placed on the market.”
Relational	Citizen involvement	“EnergieKnip rewards citizens of Emmen, a municipality of about 100 000 citizens in the northeast of the Netherlands, with digital tokens for anonymously sharing data about energy-saving measures used at home.”“i-Voting is a unique solution that simply and conveniently helps to engage people in the governance process.”
	Democracy	“The goal of building this blockchain-based platform was to make the voting process ‘safer and less susceptible to unnoticed manipulation’.”“The proof of concept also opened a deliberative, participatory process on the politics and economics of data, and how Barcelona could constitute a democratic city data commons.”
	Improve the dialogue	“One of the goals of the PININ project [PIemuNt chèINa] is to improve the dialogue between producers, consumers, wholesalers and retailers and food administration activities such as restaurants.”“A project that strengthens the traceability of Italian PDO [Protected Designation of Origin] and PGI [Protected Geographical Indication] products and offers effective communication to consumers.”
	Openness	“At its core, Blockcerts is open. The software is open source, and anyone is welcome to join the developer community.”“The City of Vienna sees tremendous opportunities for the future of the administrative administration in the currently much discussed blockchain technology. Transparency, openness and participation are the leading motifs for our thoughts and actions concerning the digitization of the city.”
	Creativity	“Creating an opportunity for co-creation between the supply and demand-side before an official tender is submitted.”

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

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