Table 1 Descriptive information about... | Emerald Publishing

Table 1

Descriptive information about included studies

Authors	Country	Aims/purpose	Study population and sample size	Methodology	Concept	Key findings
Baker et al. (2024)	USA	To examine the effect of race on parental advice during youth interrogation	763 (n) parents	Quantitative. Vignette study	Police legitimacy and procedural justice	Perceptions of police legitimacy mediated the relationship between race and parents’ expectations of advice; Black parents reported lower perceptions of police legitimacy than White parents and, in turn, were more likely to believe they would advise their children to assert rights
Barrett et al. (2022)	USA	To evaluate the Safety Net Program upon three implementation outcomes: acceptability, adoption, and appropriateness through qualitative interviews	6 (n) school resource officers, 3 (n) team partners (social workers, teachers), and 1 (n) mother	Qualitative with semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis	Utilizes a framework for evaluation but no clear theoretical underpinnings	Parental attitudes in general toward police were hesitant, but factors positively influencing their perceptions was, in part, inter-personal identification with the individual police officer
Cavanaugh et al. (2024)	USA	To investigate whether documentation status and family deportations were associated with specific and general attitudes toward the police and judges, respectively	397 (n) mothers/female guardians	Quantitative, cross-sectional	Legal socialization, general- and specific attitudes, and migration concepts	The present study found that both documentation status and family members’ deportation were associated with Latina-immigrant mothers’ attitudes toward the police. However, attitudes toward judges were neither associated with documentation status nor family deportations. Specifically, women who were undocumented had more negative specific attitudes toward police, and women with a history of family deportations expressed more negative general attitudes toward police, regardless of documentation status
Cavanagh and Cauffman (2015)	USA	To explore how parents’ attitudes, toward justice system legitimacy are associated with youth justice system attitudes, and how each affect youth reoffending behavior	Mothers and their sons, 315 pairs, 630 (n) total	Quantitative, longitudinal	Legal socialization	The results of the present analyses show that mothers’ attitudes toward police and the justice system influence their sons’ view of the police and the justice system
Cavanagh and Cauffman (2019)	USA	The present study tested the influence of (a) youth rearrests and (b) parents’ attitudes toward police on trajectories of youthful offenders’ attitudes toward police over 3 years	317 (n) first-time male juvenile offenders and their mothers	Quantitative. Longitudinal survey	Legal socialization	Mothers with more positive initial attitudes toward the police were more likely to have sons who were part of 1 of the 2 positive attitude trajectory groups than the 2 negative attitude trajectory groups. One moderator is whether the sons are re-arrested. Re-arrest predicts more negative maternal attitudes toward police, indicating that the re-arrest trigger more negative perceptions
Cavanagh et al. (2022)	USA	The present study examined two socialization mechanisms for youth legal cynicism: perceptions of police treatment and maternal legal cynicism	A total of 396 mothers-son dyads (a total sample of 676 individuals)	Quantitative, cross-sectional	Legal socialization and legal cynicism	Results suggest that youths’ legal cynicism derives from their own perceived treatment by police and not from mothers’ legal cynicism
Hellgren et al. (2024)	USA	The current study examined factors that influence parental advice to their children regarding Miranda waiver, including the severity of the crime and perceived consequences of adjudication	997 (n) parents	Vignette-based experimental design in which participants were randomly assigned to a high- severity, medium-severity, or low-severity crime condition	Using the parent as, conceptually, the protector, unknowing actor, or attempting to teach moral lessons to their youths in the interrogation room	As the severity of the crime increased, so did the number of perceived consequences, which in turn led to an increased likelihood of parents advising their child to assert their Miranda rights. The results also indicate that perceptions of police legitimacy were significantly associated with parental advice. Specifically, lower perceptions of police legitimacy made it more likely that parents would advise their children to assert their Miranda rights
Liegghio and Jaswal (2015)	Canada	The research reported here provides a qualitative description of the experiences young people living with a mental health issue have of police encounters from the perspectives of their caregivers and siblings	14 qualitative interviews conducted with seven caregivers and seven siblings, and two focus groups conducted with eight caregivers about their experiences of having a child/sibling, 13–21 years old, living with a mental health issue	Qualitative	The criminalization of mental illness and structural discrimination	Parents often appreciate the police help in de-escalating intense and potentially violent conflicts with their mentally ill youths, but they also argue that police officers are unfit to address youths with mental health issues. In short, police officers take on dual roles, of which they are only able to exert the “de-escalating” part sufficiently well
Liegghio et al. (2020)	Canada	To explore parental perceptions of police officers when handling youths at-risk with mental health issues	13 interviews with six child and youth mental health practitioners and seven caregivers	Qualitative	The criminalization of mental illness and structural discrimination	Police officers who enforce the law in a traditional way do not meet the needs of youths’ mental health needs, ultimately affecting parental perceptions negatively. However, when police officers are communicative and gentle, families feel safe and heard
Liegghio et al. (2021)	Canada	To explore the role of police officers in handling at-risk mentally ill youths, and parental perceptions of such encounters	13 interviews with six child and youth mental health practitioners and seven caregivers	Qualitative	The criminalization of mental illness and structural discrimination	Parents and social workers argue that police officers contribute to the stigmatization and criminalization of mentally ill youths, and that they are unfit to handle such cases
Lind and Joe (1996)	USA	To understand how police and parents experience and navigate the ‘problem' of runaway children	Law enforcement reports on runaway children (n = 1,459), police officers (16 n) and 9 (n) families	Mixed methods – reports with quantitative information, ethnography in ‘ride-along' with police, and 16 semi-structured interviews with law enforcement personnel, and 9 semi-structured interviews with families	No clear theory, but the study is contextualized within the discourses and public policies on runaway-children	Contact between police and parents is generally strained under these circumstances. The police are seen as ‘indifferent' and not caring about the situation, and parents are generally frustrated and disappointed with police in this stage. Parents are generally embarrassed about their situation and afraid of being depicted as unable to care for their children. They are also frustrated with the limitations of the law that hinders police officers from further helping them
MacNeil et al. (2015)	USA	To understand how families respond to notification about their child’s detention	Police intake workers (n = 14) and 14 (n) parents	Qualitative. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups	Family system theory	Parents perceived police officers as transparent and clear in their communication, which generally helped facilitating positive impressions of police officers as capable and meeting the parents with respect, although it was clear that the police was in charge. In some cases, police officers were viewed as communicating a bit too briefly
Snyder et al. (2015)	USA	To understand how parental attitudes influence at-risk youths' willingness to change delinquent behavior	95 (n) adolescents and their parents (dyad data)	Quantitative. Cross-sectional survey	Theory of stages of change	Youths in the “pre-contemplative group” (i.e. the group least likely to change in its current state) did have higher scores on the parents’ mistrust in the police and justice system, but it was not significantly different from the “contemplative” group (i.e. the group most ready to change in its current state)
Wolfe et al. (2017)	USA	The study examined whether parents' perceptions of the legitimacy of criminal justice authority figures influenced those same attitudes in their children	1,354 (n) adolescents and 933 (n) parents	Quantitative. Longitudinal survey	Legal socialization	Parents' perceptions of legitimacy significantly predicted perceptions of legitimacy in their children

Authors	Country	Aims/purpose	Study population and sample size	Methodology	Concept	Key findings
Baker et al. (2024)	USA	To examine the effect of race on parental advice during youth interrogation	763 (n) parents	Quantitative. Vignette study	Police legitimacy and procedural justice	Perceptions of police legitimacy mediated the relationship between race and parents’ expectations of advice; Black parents reported lower perceptions of police legitimacy than White parents and, in turn, were more likely to believe they would advise their children to assert rights
Barrett et al. (2022)	USA	To evaluate the Safety Net Program upon three implementation outcomes: acceptability, adoption, and appropriateness through qualitative interviews	6 (n) school resource officers, 3 (n) team partners (social workers, teachers), and 1 (n) mother	Qualitative with semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis	Utilizes a framework for evaluation but no clear theoretical underpinnings	Parental attitudes in general toward police were hesitant, but factors positively influencing their perceptions was, in part, inter-personal identification with the individual police officer
Cavanaugh et al. (2024)	USA	To investigate whether documentation status and family deportations were associated with specific and general attitudes toward the police and judges, respectively	397 (n) mothers/female guardians	Quantitative, cross-sectional	Legal socialization, general- and specific attitudes, and migration concepts	The present study found that both documentation status and family members’ deportation were associated with Latina-immigrant mothers’ attitudes toward the police. However, attitudes toward judges were neither associated with documentation status nor family deportations. Specifically, women who were undocumented had more negative specific attitudes toward police, and women with a history of family deportations expressed more negative general attitudes toward police, regardless of documentation status
Cavanagh and Cauffman (2015)	USA	To explore how parents’ attitudes, toward justice system legitimacy are associated with youth justice system attitudes, and how each affect youth reoffending behavior	Mothers and their sons, 315 pairs, 630 (n) total	Quantitative, longitudinal	Legal socialization	The results of the present analyses show that mothers’ attitudes toward police and the justice system influence their sons’ view of the police and the justice system
Cavanagh and Cauffman (2019)	USA	The present study tested the influence of (a) youth rearrests and (b) parents’ attitudes toward police on trajectories of youthful offenders’ attitudes toward police over 3 years	317 (n) first-time male juvenile offenders and their mothers	Quantitative. Longitudinal survey	Legal socialization	Mothers with more positive initial attitudes toward the police were more likely to have sons who were part of 1 of the 2 positive attitude trajectory groups than the 2 negative attitude trajectory groups. One moderator is whether the sons are re-arrested. Re-arrest predicts more negative maternal attitudes toward police, indicating that the re-arrest trigger more negative perceptions
Cavanagh et al. (2022)	USA	The present study examined two socialization mechanisms for youth legal cynicism: perceptions of police treatment and maternal legal cynicism	A total of 396 mothers-son dyads (a total sample of 676 individuals)	Quantitative, cross-sectional	Legal socialization and legal cynicism	Results suggest that youths’ legal cynicism derives from their own perceived treatment by police and not from mothers’ legal cynicism
Hellgren et al. (2024)	USA	The current study examined factors that influence parental advice to their children regarding Miranda waiver, including the severity of the crime and perceived consequences of adjudication	997 (n) parents	Vignette-based experimental design in which participants were randomly assigned to a high- severity, medium-severity, or low-severity crime condition	Using the parent as, conceptually, the protector, unknowing actor, or attempting to teach moral lessons to their youths in the interrogation room	As the severity of the crime increased, so did the number of perceived consequences, which in turn led to an increased likelihood of parents advising their child to assert their Miranda rights. The results also indicate that perceptions of police legitimacy were significantly associated with parental advice. Specifically, lower perceptions of police legitimacy made it more likely that parents would advise their children to assert their Miranda rights
Liegghio and Jaswal (2015)	Canada	The research reported here provides a qualitative description of the experiences young people living with a mental health issue have of police encounters from the perspectives of their caregivers and siblings	14 qualitative interviews conducted with seven caregivers and seven siblings, and two focus groups conducted with eight caregivers about their experiences of having a child/sibling, 13–21 years old, living with a mental health issue	Qualitative	The criminalization of mental illness and structural discrimination	Parents often appreciate the police help in de-escalating intense and potentially violent conflicts with their mentally ill youths, but they also argue that police officers are unfit to address youths with mental health issues. In short, police officers take on dual roles, of which they are only able to exert the “de-escalating” part sufficiently well
Liegghio et al. (2020)	Canada	To explore parental perceptions of police officers when handling youths at-risk with mental health issues	13 interviews with six child and youth mental health practitioners and seven caregivers	Qualitative	The criminalization of mental illness and structural discrimination	Police officers who enforce the law in a traditional way do not meet the needs of youths’ mental health needs, ultimately affecting parental perceptions negatively. However, when police officers are communicative and gentle, families feel safe and heard
Liegghio et al. (2021)	Canada	To explore the role of police officers in handling at-risk mentally ill youths, and parental perceptions of such encounters	13 interviews with six child and youth mental health practitioners and seven caregivers	Qualitative	The criminalization of mental illness and structural discrimination	Parents and social workers argue that police officers contribute to the stigmatization and criminalization of mentally ill youths, and that they are unfit to handle such cases
Lind and Joe (1996)	USA	To understand how police and parents experience and navigate the ‘problem' of runaway children	Law enforcement reports on runaway children (n = 1,459), police officers (16 n) and 9 (n) families	Mixed methods – reports with quantitative information, ethnography in ‘ride-along' with police, and 16 semi-structured interviews with law enforcement personnel, and 9 semi-structured interviews with families	No clear theory, but the study is contextualized within the discourses and public policies on runaway-children	Contact between police and parents is generally strained under these circumstances. The police are seen as ‘indifferent' and not caring about the situation, and parents are generally frustrated and disappointed with police in this stage. Parents are generally embarrassed about their situation and afraid of being depicted as unable to care for their children. They are also frustrated with the limitations of the law that hinders police officers from further helping them
MacNeil et al. (2015)	USA	To understand how families respond to notification about their child’s detention	Police intake workers (n = 14) and 14 (n) parents	Qualitative. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups	Family system theory	Parents perceived police officers as transparent and clear in their communication, which generally helped facilitating positive impressions of police officers as capable and meeting the parents with respect, although it was clear that the police was in charge. In some cases, police officers were viewed as communicating a bit too briefly
Snyder et al. (2015)	USA	To understand how parental attitudes influence at-risk youths' willingness to change delinquent behavior	95 (n) adolescents and their parents (dyad data)	Quantitative. Cross-sectional survey	Theory of stages of change	Youths in the “pre-contemplative group” (i.e. the group least likely to change in its current state) did have higher scores on the parents’ mistrust in the police and justice system, but it was not significantly different from the “contemplative” group (i.e. the group most ready to change in its current state)
Wolfe et al. (2017)	USA	The study examined whether parents' perceptions of the legitimacy of criminal justice authority figures influenced those same attitudes in their children	1,354 (n) adolescents and 933 (n) parents	Quantitative. Longitudinal survey	Legal socialization	Parents' perceptions of legitimacy significantly predicted perceptions of legitimacy in their children

Source(s): Authors’ own work