Table 1. Input parameters for the 2D DEM...

Table 1.

Input parameters for the 2D DEM numerical simulations

Simulation parameter	Value
$x_{MAX}$	0·5
Initial radius $r_{0}$	0·31–0·4 mm
Particle density $ρ$	1·3 g/cm³
$α_{r}$	1
Friction coefficient $μ$	0·8
Initial particle stiffness $k_{0}$	4·29 N/m²
Softening ratio $β_{k}$	0·01
Oedometer width	16 mm

Simulation parameter	Value
$x_{MAX}$	0·5
Initial radius $r_{0}$	0·31–0·4 mm
Particle density $ρ$	1·3 g/cm³
$α_{r}$	1
Friction coefficient $μ$	0·8
Initial particle stiffness $k_{0}$	4·29 N/m²
Softening ratio $β_{k}$	0·01
Oedometer width	16 mm