Table A1
Impression management techniques in a board-of-directors’ context
| Impression management technique (Includes Goffman's (1959) description (in quotes) where relevant) | Preventive “Avoid … embarrassments”* Avoid disruption of the performance or narrative | Corrective “Compensate for occurrences [incidents] not … avoided”** Prevent disruption of the performance or narrative as a result of a question or comment |
| Defensive techniques Protect/defend own performance Avoid facts being drawn to the attention of the audience | Protect own performance ❶Mild challenge: demonstrates that NEDs are asking questions and thus providing challenge, while exercising ❷“dramaturgical circumspection” by “keeping close to the facts” *** (e.g. simple question, no follow up) NEDs exercise “dramaturgical loyalty” to the performance by not “staging their own show”, e.g. by not asking tough questions. They proficiently apply the skill of questioning | Protect own performance ❼Combination answers provide a sequence of answers to prevent the performance being disrupted by challenging questions, and to discourage further questions ❽Collaborative answers provide complementary answers from different individuals to prevent the performance being disrupted by challenging questions, and to discourage further questions ❾Close down debate enables management to avoid answering the question or engage in further discussion ❿Agree with the questioner discourages further questions  Acknowledge the challenge reduces the impact of the question, by redirecting the focus of the question onto the notion of challenge. Also demonstrates that the recipient has been challenged and is responding |
| Protective techniques Protect the performance of others (in the performance team) | Preventive Protect others' performances NEDs use ❶mild challenge: simple questions with no follow up, which allows the recipient to provide a satisfactory answer. Use ❸“tact” to accept an answer and not ask follow up/more challenging questions By NEDs using ❹supportive or optimistic comments to start a substantive question lessens the impact of the question on the recipient ❺Question own understanding as part of a combination question minimises the negative effect of the question on the recipient, by directing the focus of the question onto the questioner ❻NEDs use combination questions to precede a substantive question with a supportive and optimistic comment to protect the performance of the manager being questioned | Corrective Protect others' performances Supportive and optimistic comments as part of combination questions move the focus away from the question and minimise its effect on the manager being questioned Using ❹supportive or optimistic comments to start a substantive question moves the focus away from the question and protects the performance of the manager being questioned ❺Question own understanding as part of a combination question directs the focus away from the question onto the questioner. This minimises the negative effect of the question on the manager ❿Agree with the questioner indicates questioner is offering good challenge, and protects the questioner's performance Acknowledge the challenge indicates that the questioner is offering good challenge and performing governance |
Source(s): *Goffman (1959, p. 13); **Goffman (1959, p. 213); ***Goffman (1959, p. 220)
❶- These are the eleven impression management techniques identified in the study unique to a board-of-directors’ context