Table 3.

Assessment of the best fit methodology (DE or PAR) for the reviewed studies

PublicationBest fit
(DE or PAR)
Reasoning
Junyent and de Ciurana (2008) PARThe research involved extensive collaboration across multiple universities with a focus on transformative, iterative processes for sustainability education, aligning well with PAR’s principles
Kawabe et al. (2013) DEAppears to take a philosophically pragmatic approach. Focused on social learning and adaptive capacity in coastal governance, where DE’s strengths in handling complex, dynamic environments and real-time adaptation make it a better fit than PAR
Maritz (2017) DEAimed to develop and validate entrepreneurship education programs through iterative research and practical applications, making DE’s real-time feedback and flexibility potentially a better fit than PAR. Explicit consideration of complexity and its characteristics may have added further insight regarding interactions
McMahon and Bhamra (2012) PARFocused on international collaboration in design education for social sustainability, with long-term, participatory processes and transformative goals, aligning well with PAR’s focus on transformative action
Trott, Weinberg and McMeeking (2018) DEEmphasised continuous learning and adaptation in sustainability challenges, aligning well with DE’s focus on complexity, systems thinking and real-time feedback for student and community growth. Recognises top-down and bottom up influences and promotes a bottom-up approach
Williams et al. (2008) PARTwo cycles completed with a third planned, focused on community-driven quality of life improvements, emphasising social justice, power redistribution and community transformation, making PAR the best fit for this research. Positions bottom-up models as most effective
Source(s): Authors own work

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