Table 4

DEA efficiency scores by country (2012–2023)

CountryMean efficiency scoreStd. Dev. Efficiency
Austria0.9830.028
Belgium0.9770.031
Bulgaria0.9260.044
Croatia0.9140.038
Cyprus0.9210.042
Czech Republic0.9330.043
Denmark0.9860.025
Estonia0.9590.039
Finland0.9720.027
France0.9630.034
Germany0.9680.031
Greece0.9040.047
Hungary0.9100.046
Ireland0.9780.028
Italy0.9560.042
Latvia0.9070.046
Lithuania0.9160.043
Luxembourg0.9820.030
Malta0.9250.041
Netherlands0.9810.029
Poland0.9200.043
Portugal0.9380.042
Romania0.8990.049
Slovakia0.9080.046
Slovenia0.9290.041
Spain0.9420.044
Sweden0.9890.021
Brunei0.8590.044
Cambodia0.7720.057
Indonesia0.8170.052
Laos0.7620.056
Malaysia0.8930.039
Myanmar0.7550.060
Philippines0.8030.053
Singapore0.9760.028
Thailand0.8460.047
Timor-Leste0.7880.055
Vietnam0.8290.048

Note(s): The mean efficiency score indicates proximity to the best-practice frontier (with 1.0 signifying full efficiency). Countries with lower efficiency often display both lower digitalisation and less favourable labour market outcomes

Source(s): Created by authors
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