Table 1. Definitions of nonlinear... | Emerald Publishing

Table 1.

Definitions of nonlinear internationalization in academic literature

Phenomenon	Characteristics
Nonlinear internationalization	“foreign involvement fluctuations and internationalisation flexibility” (Chen et al., 2019, p. 154) “substantial decreases and, sometimes, the following increases and further fluctuations in international involvement” (Vissak and Francioni, 2013, p. 951) “a series of entries and withdrawals” (Niittymies et al., 2022: 11) “a process characterized by substantial increases and decreases in internationalization activity” (Vissak, 2010: 560) such firms’ “international commitment varies over time” (Nummela et al., 2022, p. 297) “discontinuous and non-incremental steps” in internationalization (Schweizer and Vahlne, 2022, p. 584) “periods of acceleration, deceleration, and also of constant speed” (Johanson and Kalinic, 2016, p. 843)
Serial nonlinear internationalization	“de- and re-internationalizing several times in terms of market and/or entry mode selection” (Vissak and Francioni, 2013, p. 952) “internationalization process with several exits and re-entries or significant foreign involvement fluctuations” (Dominguez and Mayrhofer, 2017, p. 1054) “the discontinuous and repetitive process of export (re)entry and exit” (Jeong and Yang, 2023, p. 3) “continual de-internationalization and re-internationalization” (Ali and Mathur, 2022, p. 53)
Intermittent exporters	firms that “repeatedly enter, withdraw from, and re-enter exporting activity as a whole” (Bernini et al., 2016, p. 1060)
De-internationalization	“voluntary or forced actions that reduce a company’s engagement in or exposure to current cross-border activities” (Benito and Welch, 1997, p. 9) “an intentional, proactive management strategy to cut back international activities” (Mellahi, 2003, p. 151) “withdrawal from inward and outward international operations” (Welch and Welch, 2009, p. 568) “withdraw[ing] from a foreign market” (Chen et al., 2019, p. 154) “complete withdrawal from foreign markets /…/, exit from and/or reducing operations in one/more countries – like decreasing ownership in foreign subsidiaries or laying off some export managers – and switching to entry modes reducing resource commitment, for instance, starting to export after divesting” (Vissak and Francioni, 2013, p. 952) “full or partial foreign market exits or reductions of foreign involvement: e.g. divesting but continuing to export to a particular market” (Vissak and Francioni, 2020, p. 28) “A firm partially exits a market by, for instance, reducing its level of involvement /…/ A complete exit from a foreign market, on the other hand, is when a firm ceases all international sales or operations in that specific market” (Sousa et al., 2021, p. 2) “complete or partial exits from international markets” (Castillo et al., 2025, p. 3)
Re-internationalization	“a process comprising initial international experience, exit, time-out without any international involvement and eventual re-entry” (Welch and Welch, 2009, p. 568) “successfully renewed international operations” [after staying out of a foreign market] (Chen et al., 2019, p. 154) “the process by which a firm restarts operations in a previously exited market from which it has had a complete withdrawal” (Sousa et al., 2021, p. 2) “re-entering all or some of the exited markets and/or renewing all or some of the reduced or temporarily terminated operations again” (Vissak and Francioni, 2020, p. 28) “a set of actions that subsequently escalate a firm’s involvement or exposure to foreign markets following a period of reduced activity” (Kafouros et al., 2022, p. 2) “reentry to or restoration of resource commitment to specific markets from where the firm has previously exited, or where it had reduced its involvement, as well as entering different foreign markets instead of those that were exited and using entry modes with a higher resource commitment than after de-internationalization” (Vissak, 2010, pp. 566–568)

Phenomenon	Characteristics
Nonlinear internationalization	“foreign involvement fluctuations and internationalisation flexibility” (Chen et al., 2019, p. 154)“substantial decreases and, sometimes, the following increases and further fluctuations in international involvement” (Vissak and Francioni, 2013, p. 951)“a series of entries and withdrawals” (Niittymies et al., 2022: 11)“a process characterized by substantial increases and decreases in internationalization activity” (Vissak, 2010: 560)such firms’ “international commitment varies over time” (Nummela et al., 2022, p. 297)“discontinuous and non-incremental steps” in internationalization (Schweizer and Vahlne, 2022, p. 584)“periods of acceleration, deceleration, and also of constant speed” (Johanson and Kalinic, 2016, p. 843)
Serial nonlinear internationalization	“de- and re-internationalizing several times in terms of market and/or entry mode selection” (Vissak and Francioni, 2013, p. 952)“internationalization process with several exits and re-entries or significant foreign involvement fluctuations” (Dominguez and Mayrhofer, 2017, p. 1054)“the discontinuous and repetitive process of export (re)entry and exit” (Jeong and Yang, 2023, p. 3)“continual de-internationalization and re-internationalization” (Ali and Mathur, 2022, p. 53)
Intermittent exporters	firms that “repeatedly enter, withdraw from, and re-enter exporting activity as a whole” (Bernini et al., 2016, p. 1060)
De-internationalization	“voluntary or forced actions that reduce a company’s engagement in or exposure to current cross-border activities” (Benito and Welch, 1997, p. 9)“an intentional, proactive management strategy to cut back international activities” (Mellahi, 2003, p. 151)“withdrawal from inward and outward international operations” (Welch and Welch, 2009, p. 568)“withdraw[ing] from a foreign market” (Chen et al., 2019, p. 154)“complete withdrawal from foreign markets /…/, exit from and/or reducing operations in one/more countries – like decreasing ownership in foreign subsidiaries or laying off some export managers – and switching to entry modes reducing resource commitment, for instance, starting to export after divesting” (Vissak and Francioni, 2013, p. 952)“full or partial foreign market exits or reductions of foreign involvement: e.g. divesting but continuing to export to a particular market” (Vissak and Francioni, 2020, p. 28)“A firm partially exits a market by, for instance, reducing its level of involvement /…/ A complete exit from a foreign market, on the other hand, is when a firm ceases all international sales or operations in that specific market” (Sousa et al., 2021, p. 2)“complete or partial exits from international markets” (Castillo et al., 2025, p. 3)
Re-internationalization	“a process comprising initial international experience, exit, time-out without any international involvement and eventual re-entry” (Welch and Welch, 2009, p. 568)“successfully renewed international operations” [after staying out of a foreign market] (Chen et al., 2019, p. 154)“the process by which a firm restarts operations in a previously exited market from which it has had a complete withdrawal” (Sousa et al., 2021, p. 2)“re-entering all or some of the exited markets and/or renewing all or some of the reduced or temporarily terminated operations again” (Vissak and Francioni, 2020, p. 28)“a set of actions that subsequently escalate a firm’s involvement or exposure to foreign markets following a period of reduced activity” (Kafouros et al., 2022, p. 2)“reentry to or restoration of resource commitment to specific markets from where the firm has previously exited, or where it had reduced its involvement, as well as entering different foreign markets instead of those that were exited and using entry modes with a higher resource commitment than after de-internationalization” (Vissak, 2010, pp. 566–568)

Source(s): Authors’ own work