Definitions of nonlinear internationalization*
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| Main generative AI chatbots | |
| ChatGPT Plus | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the patterns of international expansion that don’t follow a straight, predictable path. This concept suggests that firms may experience irregular patterns of growth, reduction, or changes in their international activities, rather than a smooth, gradual increase in international engagement. Here are some key insights into this concept based on scientific sources: 1. Variety of Forms: Nonlinear internationalization can manifest in several ways, including changes in the markets firms enter, the customers they target, the products they offer, their sales channels, and the modes of operation they employ in foreign markets. This complexity means that internationalization should be analyzed not just by looking at a firm’s overall activities in each market, but also by considering how these activities vary across different products, sales channels, customers, and modes of operation within each market 2. Not Just an Anomaly: The concept challenges the traditional views of internationalization that emphasize either a gradual, step-by-step approach or a rapid “born global” path. Instead, it acknowledges the existence of substantial “jumps” or changes in a firm’s international intensity, including partial and complete de-internationalization and re-internationalization, as well as the phenomena of “born-again globals” and “born-again internationals.” It posits that such nonlinear paths are not merely irregular deviations but are instead common and should be seen as a normal part of the internationalization process 3. Relevance in Various Contexts: The study of nonlinear internationalization gained additional relevance with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Research focusing on Estonian firms highlighted that nonlinear internationalization, characterized by entering and exiting foreign markets and experiencing significant export fluctuations, is not limited to times of economic crisis. It can be a normal aspect of a firm’s international strategy, offering opportunities for growth even in the face of global challenges like the pandemic. The pandemic’s impact included demand fluctuations and travel restrictions, but it also created new business opportunities for some firms, leading to increases in their overall turnover These insights suggest that nonlinear internationalization is a significant aspect of international business that merits attention. Understanding this concept can help scholars and practitioners better grasp the complexities and dynamics of how firms engage with global markets” Sources
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| Google Gemini | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to a process where a company’s engagement with international markets doesn’t follow a straight line of continual growth or expansion. This concept challenges the traditional view of internationalization as a linear, staged progression Here’s a breakdown based on scientific sources:
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Overall, firms’ nonlinear internationalization underscores the dynamic and complex nature of a company’s international journey” Sources
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| Microsoft copilot | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” refers to the various forms of internationalization that a firm can experience, which do not follow a linear or predictable path1 Firm internationalization is traditionally defined as the process through which a firm expands the sales of its goods or services across the borders of global regions and countries into different geographic locations or markets23. This process is often perceived as the consequence of incremental adjustments to changing conditions within the firm and its environment3 However, nonlinear internationalization acknowledges that this process can occur in various forms and dimensions, including markets, customers, products, sales channels, and foreign operation modes1. This means that a firm’s internationalization process may not always follow a predictable or step-by-step path, but instead, it can evolve in a more complex and dynamic manner. It’s important to note that the concept of “firms’ nonlinear internationalization” is a topic of ongoing research and discussion in the field of international business studies. Different scholars might have slightly different interpretations or focus areas regarding this concept. The definitions provided here are based on the sources found23” Sources
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| Perplexity | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the discontinuous, fluctuating, and often unpredictable patterns of a company’s international expansion, which does not follow a linear, gradual path. Key aspects include:
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| In contrast to traditional stage-based models, nonlinear internationalization highlights the dynamic, complex, and often unpredictable nature of firms’ foreign expansion processes. Understanding these nonlinearities is an important area of research in international business” | |
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| Claude | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” refers to the discontinuous, irregular, or non-sequential patterns of a company’s international expansion process. This concept challenges the traditional view of internationalization as a gradual, linear progression Key aspects of nonlinear internationalization include:
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| This definition is synthesized from various academic sources, including work by researchers like Welch and Luostarinen (1988), Jones and Coviello (2005), and Vissak and Francioni (2013). However, as I don’t have direct access to these sources, I recommend verifying this information with the original publications for the most accurate and up-to-date definition Sources
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| Other generative AI chatbots | |
| Character.AI | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” can refer to how firms choose to expand in order to grow internationally. Specifically, firms have the option of expanding in a linear or nonlinear manner. Linear expansion can be defined as the traditional path of international expansion, where firms first focus on nearby markets and subsequently expand into increasingly distant target countries. This approach typically results in slow, steady growth. Nonlinear internationalization, on the other hand, refers to a more disruptive approach to international expansion, whereby firms choose to skip adjacent countries and go directly to more distant markets” Sources
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| ChatGPT Online | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the process by which companies expand their operations and market presence in foreign countries in a non-linear fashion, characterized by sudden or unpredictable changes in their internationalization strategies and patterns. This can include rapid expansion into new markets, sudden divestment from certain regions, or the adoption of unconventional approaches to entering foreign markets. According to scientific sources, firms’ nonlinear internationalization is often influenced by a variety of factors such as changes in global market conditions, shifts in consumer preferences, advancements in technology, and competitive pressures. This can lead to firms deviating from traditional linear models of internationalization, such as the Uppsala model, and adopting more dynamic and flexible approaches to expanding their global footprint. Research has shown that firms’ nonlinear internationalization can be driven by a combination of internal and external factors, including firm-specific capabilities, managerial decisions, industry dynamics, and macroeconomic trends. By adapting to changing market conditions and embracing unpredictability in their internationalization strategies, firms can better navigate the complexities of global business environments and achieve sustainable growth and competitiveness on a global scale” Sources It refused: “I’m sorry, but I cannot provide sources as I am an AI assistant and do not have access to external sources. However, I recommend conducting a search on reputable websites or databases to find sources that support the information provided” |
| ColossalChat | “Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization (FNI) refers to firms’ decision-making process of entering and expanding in foreign markets, which involves various strategies such as exporting, licensing, joint ventures or direct investments. FNI has been studied extensively from both theoretical and empirical perspectives. From a theoretical perspective, researchers have proposed different models to explain how and why firms decide to enter into foreign markets. These theories range from neoclassical economic theory to more recent institutionalist approaches. Empirically, scholars have used quantitative methods to analyze large datasets to identify factors influencing firms’ decisions to go global. The results suggest that there are several drivers for firms’ international expansion including market size, competition level, legal environment, cultural distance, political risk and financial accessibility. In addition, some studies also found that firm characteristics like ownership structure, product life cycle stage, and industry type can influence firms’ internationalization strategy. Overall, this body of literature suggests that while many factors shape firms’ internationalization decisions, they tend to be nonlinear; meaning certain combinations of factors may lead to greater or lesser levels of international activity than expected” Sources
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| AI-driven applications specifically designed for academic research | |
| Avidnote | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the process by which companies expand their operations and activities beyond their domestic markets in a non-linear, dynamic, and flexible manner. It implies that firms do not follow a linear progression of steps or a predefined pathway in their internationalization process. Scientific sources provide several perspectives on this concept. According to a study by Almeida and Kogut (1997), firms’ internationalization is not always a gradual progression from domestic to international markets but can occur through various modes and entry strategies simultaneously or in a discontinuous way. Additionally, research by Johanson and Vahlne (2009) supports the idea of nonlinear internationalization by suggesting that firms may engage in international activities through networks and cooperative partnerships, rather than through traditional hierarchical structures Furthermore, another study by Knight and Cavusgil (1996) highlights the importance of experiential knowledge gained from previous international ventures, which can lead to accelerated internationalization and non-linear growth. Overall, the concept of firms’ nonlinear internationalization suggests that companies have the flexibility and autonomy to choose different pathways, modes, and strategies for their international expansion, rather than following a fixed sequence of steps” Sources It refused to provide more information (e.g. article title, journal name). It stated that “I’m sorry, but as an AI language model, my responses are generated based on a mixture of licensed data, data created by human trainers, and publicly available data. I have not been trained on specific publishers or have access to proprietary publishers’ databases. Therefore, I do not have direct access to the content of the article you mentioned. To find the specific publication information such as the article title, journal name, volume, and page numbers, you can try searching for it in academic databases, library catalogs, or online research platforms” |
| Elicit | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization, as defined by Chandra (2017), is a complex and unpredictable process influenced by networks and social physics. Vissak (2021) further elaborates on this, identifying various forms of nonlinear internationalization, including in markets, customers, products, sales channels, and foreign operation modes. This concept challenges the traditional linear view of internationalization, as demonstrated by the case study of an Italian machinery producer (Vissak, 2013). Anh (2021) adds to this by highlighting the potential impact of nonlinear internationalization on firm financial performance, suggesting a U-shaped or S-shaped relationship” Sources
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| PaperDigest | “Based on the provided search results, firms’ nonlinear internationalization can be defined as a distinct mode of internationalization that exhibits characteristics of both the Uppsala model and the Born Global approach. This process involves unique features that differentiate it from traditional linear internationalization strategies. The nonlinear internationalization of firms involves a combination of various elements that contribute to its distinctiveness in the global market. This approach may involve a more dynamic and flexible strategy that allows firms to adapt to changing market conditions and opportunities. Additionally, firms’ nonlinear internationalization may involve a more rapid and aggressive expansion into international markets compared to traditional linear approaches. Overall, firms’ nonlinear internationalization is a complex and multifaceted process that requires a strategic and adaptive approach to succeed in the global marketplace” Source
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| Scispace | ““Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” refers to the non-linear growth patterns experienced by firms in their international expansion[1][2]. This concept encompasses fluctuations in sales with different clients in various foreign markets and the varying number of foreign markets served over time[3]. It highlights that internationalization should not only be assessed based on total sales in a specific market but also by considering activities across different sales channels, products, customers, and foreign operation modes within each market[4]. Such fluctuations do not necessarily lead to failure and can be influenced by internal and external factors, occurring multiple times in a particular market[5]. Understanding firms’ nonlinear internationalization involves analyzing growth patterns, crisis points, and the impact of various factors on the internationalization process” Sources
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| Source | Answer |
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| ChatGPT Plus | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the patterns of international expansion that don’t follow a straight, predictable path. This concept suggests that firms may experience irregular patterns of growth, reduction, or changes in their international activities, rather than a smooth, gradual increase in international engagement. Here are some key insights into this concept based on scientific sources: Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Transformations and Innovations in Business and Education (ICTIBE 2021), Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research. Atlantis Press Vissak, T. (2010). ”Nonlinear internationalization: a neglected topic in international business research.” The Past, Present and Future of International Business and Management, Advances in International Management, Vol. 23. Emerald Publishing Limited Vissak, T. (2022). ”Serial Nonlinear Internationalization before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Case Study Evidence from Estonia.” International Business in Times of Crisis: Tribute Volume to Geoffrey Jones, Progress in International Business Research, Vol. 16. Emerald Publishing Limited |
| Google Gemini | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to a process where a company’s engagement with international markets doesn’t follow a straight line of continual growth or expansion. This concept challenges the traditional view of internationalization as a linear, staged progression Deviation from Linear Growth: Nonlinear internationalization highlights that firms can experience periods of increasing international activity followed by stagnation, decline, or even complete withdrawal from certain markets [1, 4]. This can involve aspects like markets served, customers, products offered, sales channels, or foreign operation modes [2] De-internationalization and Re-entry: The concept encompasses the possibility of firms exiting foreign markets entirely (de-internationalization) and then potentially re-entering them later [1, 3]. This cycle of exit and re-entry can be influenced by various internal and external factors [5] Serial Nonlinearity: Research suggests that firms might undergo multiple cycles of nonlinear internationalization throughout their existence, referred to as “serial nonlinear internationalization” [4] |
| Overall, firms’ nonlinear internationalization underscores the dynamic and complex nature of a company’s international journey” Sources Vissak, T. (2019). Forms of Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization [1]. ( Vissak, T. (2010). Nonlinear internationalization: A neglected topic in international business research [4]. ( | |
| Microsoft copilot | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” refers to the various forms of internationalization that a firm can experience, which do not follow a linear or predictable path1 Attig, N., Boubakri, N., El Ghoul, S., and Guedhami, O. (2016). Firm internationalization and corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 134, 171–197 Vissak, T. (2021, August). Forms of Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization. In 2021 International Conference on Transformations and Innovations in Business and Education (ICTIBE 2021) (pp. 244–249). Atlantis Press Christofor, J. (2008). Theoretical Foundations of Firm Internationalization. Antecedents of Venture Firms’ Internationalization: A Conjoint Analysis of International Entrepreneurship in the Net Economy, 23–81 |
| Perplexity | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the discontinuous, fluctuating, and often unpredictable patterns of a company’s international expansion, which does not follow a linear, gradual path. Key aspects include: Firms can enter and exit foreign markets in a non-sequential manner, with multiple cycles of internationalization and de-internationalization A firm’s international operations, such as sales channels, operation modes, products, and customers, can change in a nonlinear fashion within a given foreign market, even as total sales in that market continue to grow Nonlinearities can occur not just across markets, but also within a single market in terms of the firm’s specific activities and commitments Factors like managerial cognition, heuristics, and individual decision-making play an important role in driving these nonlinear internationalization patterns |
| In contrast to traditional stage-based models, nonlinear internationalization highlights the dynamic, complex, and often unpredictable nature of firms’ foreign expansion processes. Understanding these nonlinearities is an important area of research in international business” | |
| Sources Vissak, T. (2021). Forms of Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization. Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, 186, 243–248 Vissak, T., and Francioni, B. (2013). Serial nonlinear internationalization in practice: A case study. International Business Review, 22(6), 951–962 Vissak, T. (2010). MVM’s Nonlinear Internationalization: A Case Study. Journal of East-West Business, 18(4), 275–300 Vissak, T. (2014). Nonlinear internationalization: A neglected topic in international business research. In The Routledge Companion to International Business Coaching (pp. 61–74). Routledge Vissak, T., and Masso, J. (2015). Export patterns: Typology development and application. International Business Review, 24(1), 220–237 | |
| Claude | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” refers to the discontinuous, irregular, or non-sequential patterns of a company’s international expansion process. This concept challenges the traditional view of internationalization as a gradual, linear progression Irregular pace: Firms may rapidly accelerate or decelerate their international activities Market entries and exits: Companies might enter new markets and then withdraw, only to re-enter later Radical changes in operation modes: Firms may suddenly shift from exporting to foreign direct investment, or vice versa Leapfrogging stages: Companies might skip expected stages in the typical internationalization process |
| This definition is synthesized from various academic sources, including work by researchers like Welch and Luostarinen (1988), Jones and Coviello (2005), and Welch, L. S., and Luostarinen, R. (1988). Internationalization: Evolution of a concept. Journal of General Management, 14(2), 34–55 Jones, M. V., and Coviello, N. E. (2005). Internationalisation: Conceptualising an entrepreneurial process of behaviour in time. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(3), 284–303 Vissak, T., and Francioni, B. (2013). Serial nonlinear internationalization in practice: A case study. International Business Review, 22(6), 951–962 | |
| Character.AI | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” can refer to how firms choose to expand in order to grow internationally. Specifically, firms have the option of expanding in a linear or nonlinear manner. Linear expansion can be defined as the traditional path of international expansion, where firms first focus on nearby markets and subsequently expand into increasingly distant target countries. This approach typically results in slow, steady growth. Nonlinear internationalization, on the other hand, refers to a more disruptive approach to international expansion, whereby firms choose to skip adjacent countries and go directly to more distant markets” “Strategies and Structure: International Firms and Competitive Advantage” by Michael E. Porter A study published in The Journal of International Economics called “International Expansion and Nonlinear Growth: Some Evidence from US Multinationals” A study published by the University of St. Gallen called “Nonlinear Internationalization and Growth of New Firms” |
| ChatGPT Online | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the process by which companies expand their operations and market presence in foreign countries in a non-linear fashion, characterized by sudden or unpredictable changes in their internationalization strategies and patterns. This can include rapid expansion into new markets, sudden divestment from certain regions, or the adoption of unconventional approaches to entering foreign markets. According to scientific sources, firms’ nonlinear internationalization is often influenced by a variety of factors such as changes in global market conditions, shifts in consumer preferences, advancements in technology, and competitive pressures. This can lead to firms deviating from traditional linear models of internationalization, such as the Uppsala model, and adopting more dynamic and flexible approaches to expanding their global footprint. Research has shown that firms’ nonlinear internationalization can be driven by a combination of internal and external factors, including firm-specific capabilities, managerial decisions, industry dynamics, and macroeconomic trends. By adapting to changing market conditions and embracing unpredictability in their internationalization strategies, firms can better navigate the complexities of global business environments and achieve sustainable growth and competitiveness on a global scale” |
| ColossalChat | “Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization (FNI) refers to firms’ decision-making process of entering and expanding in foreign markets, which involves various strategies such as exporting, licensing, joint ventures or direct investments. FNI has been studied extensively from both theoretical and empirical perspectives. From a theoretical perspective, researchers have proposed different models to explain how and why firms decide to enter into foreign markets. These theories range from neoclassical economic theory to more recent institutionalist approaches. Empirically, scholars have used quantitative methods to analyze large datasets to identify factors influencing firms’ decisions to go global. The results suggest that there are several drivers for firms’ international expansion including market size, competition level, legal environment, cultural distance, political risk and financial accessibility. In addition, some studies also found that firm characteristics like ownership structure, product life cycle stage, and industry type can influence firms’ internationalization strategy. Overall, this body of literature suggests that while many factors shape firms’ internationalization decisions, they tend to be nonlinear; meaning certain combinations of factors may lead to greater or lesser levels of international activity than expected” Zahra, S., and Nielsen, K. B. (2005). The internationalisation of firms: A review of theories and evidence. Journal of World Business, 40(3), 179–206. Hennart, J.-C., and Legrand, D. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook on the economics of international trade. North-Holland, Amsterdam. ISBN 9780444536444. Chapter 10 – Firms’ nonlinear internationalization by Jean-Charles Hennart and Didier Legrand Zahra, S.A., and Govindarajan, V. (2000). Strategic Management of Global Enterprise: Text and Cases. Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780130135948. Chapter 10 - Nonlinear Internationalization by Subhash Anand Zahra |
| Avidnote | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization refers to the process by which companies expand their operations and activities beyond their domestic markets in a non-linear, dynamic, and flexible manner. It implies that firms do not follow a linear progression of steps or a predefined pathway in their internationalization process. Scientific sources provide several perspectives on this concept. According to a study by Almeida and Kogut (1997), firms’ internationalization is not always a gradual progression from domestic to international markets but can occur through various modes and entry strategies simultaneously or in a discontinuous way. Additionally, research by Johanson and Vahlne (2009) supports the idea of nonlinear internationalization by suggesting that firms may engage in international activities through networks and cooperative partnerships, rather than through traditional hierarchical structures |
| Elicit | “Firms’ nonlinear internationalization, as defined by Chandra (2017), is a complex and unpredictable process influenced by networks and social physics. Vissak (2021) further elaborates on this, identifying various forms of nonlinear internationalization, including in markets, customers, products, sales channels, and foreign operation modes. This concept challenges the traditional linear view of internationalization, as demonstrated by the case study of an Italian machinery producer (Vissak, 2013). Anh (2021) adds to this by highlighting the potential impact of nonlinear internationalization on firm financial performance, suggesting a U-shaped or S-shaped relationship” Chandra, Y., and Wilkinson, I. F. (2017). Firm internationalization from a network-centric complex-systems perspective. Journal of World Business, 52(5), 691–701 Vissak, T. (2021, August). Forms of Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization. In 2021 International Conference on Transformations and Innovations in Business and Education (ICTIBE 2021) (pp. 244–249). Atlantis Press Vissak, T., and Francioni, B. (2013). Serial nonlinear internationalization in practice: A case study. International Business Review, 22(6), 951–962 Tran, Q. A., and Dut, V. V. (2021). A 21-Year Review of Research on the Effect of Internationalization on Firm Financial Performance and Research Agenda. VNU JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS, 1(2) |
| PaperDigest | “Based on the provided search results, firms’ nonlinear internationalization can be defined as a distinct mode of internationalization that exhibits characteristics of both the Uppsala model and the Born Global approach. This process involves unique features that differentiate it from traditional linear internationalization strategies. The nonlinear internationalization of firms involves a combination of various elements that contribute to its distinctiveness in the global market. This approach may involve a more dynamic and flexible strategy that allows firms to adapt to changing market conditions and opportunities. Additionally, firms’ nonlinear internationalization may involve a more rapid and aggressive expansion into international markets compared to traditional linear approaches. Overall, firms’ nonlinear internationalization is a complex and multifaceted process that requires a strategic and adaptive approach to succeed in the global marketplace” Owusu, R. A., Sandhu, M., and Kock, S. (2007). Project business: a distinct mode of internationalization. International Marketing Review, 24(6), 695–714 |
| Scispace | ““Firms’ nonlinear internationalization” refers to the non-linear growth patterns experienced by firms in their international expansion[1][2]. This concept encompasses fluctuations in sales with different clients in various foreign markets and the varying number of foreign markets served over time[3]. It highlights that internationalization should not only be assessed based on total sales in a specific market but also by considering activities across different sales channels, products, customers, and foreign operation modes within each market[4]. Such fluctuations do not necessarily lead to failure and can be influenced by internal and external factors, occurring multiple times in a particular market[5]. Understanding firms’ nonlinear internationalization involves analyzing growth patterns, crisis points, and the impact of various factors on the internationalization process” Tiia, Vissak. (2021). Forms of Firms’ Nonlinear Internationalization. doi: 10.2991/AEBMR.K.210809.034 Xiaotian, Zhang., Raushan, Aman., Julia, Helena, Zhang., Yanhong, Xi. (2020). Serial nonlinearities in firm’s internationalisation process: case evidence from China. doi: 10.1504/IJEXPORTM.2020.10029816 Niklas, Åkerman. (2015). International opportunity realization in firm internationalization: Non-linear effects of market-specific knowledge and internationalization knowledge. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, doi: 10.1007/S10843-015–0152-X Itzhak, Gnizy., Aviv, Shoham. (2014). Explicating the Reverse Internationalization Processes of Firms. Journal of Global Marketing, doi: 10.1080/08911762.2014.917755 |
Note(s):
*Answers to the following question: Please define “firms’ nonlinear internationalization” based on scientific sources. Some tools provided sources instantly, and some did it after asking them to provide sources for their text
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