Figure 2
The diagram shows an aggregated causal loop diagram with multiple interconnected variables and arrows forming feedback loops. Starting from the top center, the label “Land availability” is connected by a downward positive arrow to “Green areas and parking spaces,” which connects with a downward positive arrow to “Attractiveness of city.” A leftward positive arrow from “Attractiveness of city” points to “Immigration,” and a downward arrow from it points to “Population.” From “Population,” a leftward positive arrow points to “Need for new houses,” and an upward positive arrow from it leads to “Households.” An upward negative arrow from “Households” points back to “Land availability.” A leftward downward negative arrow from “Attractiveness of city” points to “Emigration,” which connects with a negative arrow to “Population.” From “Population,” a negative arrow points to “G D P per capita,” which connects back to “Attractiveness of city” with a positive arrow. A downward positive arrow from “Population” leads to “Traffic congestion.” A rightward arrow from it points to “Perceived need for new roads” at the bottom, and a leftward arrow from it points to “Line kilometer roads,” which connects back to “Land availability” with a negative arrow. An upward negative arrow from “Line kilometer roads” points to “Traffic congestion,” and a positive arrow from “Traffic congestion” points to “Public transport usage.” From “Pollution,” one negative and three positive arrows connect respectively to “Available jobs,” “G D P,” “Waste generation,” and “Water consumption.” On the right side, “Available jobs” connects to “Industries and Services (hospitals, leisures, etc.)” with a positive arrow, and “Water consumption” connects to “Water shortage” with a positive arrow. “G D P” connects positively to “Industries and Services (hospitals, leisures, etc.).” From it, positive arrows connect to “Attractiveness of city,” “Available jobs,” “G D P,” “Waste generation,” “Water consumption,” and “Perceived need for new roads.” A negative arrow from it loops back to “Land availability.”Aggregated causal loop diagram of the SD model used in this study. Source: Authors’ own work