Figure 4
The diagram presents a multilevel framework organized into three horizontal levels labeled on the left as “MACRO”, “MESO”, and “MICRO”. At the macro level, the section labeled “MACRO FACTORS” lists four categories. “Environmental (for example climate change, strength of climate protection systems)”. “Institutional (for example political–economic institutions; government regulations; carbon programs)”. “Economic (for example G D P, ecosystem protection, stakeholder business culture)”. “Social (for example stakeholder pressure, public pressure and sentiment, social trust)”. A horizontal arrow labeled “E. MACRO-LEVEL ASSOCIATIONS” extends from “MACRO FACTORS” toward the right side of the diagram and points to “MACRO OUTCOMES”. Additionally, two diagonal arrows labeled “Macro arrow meso” and “Macro arrow micro” extend downward from “MACRO FACTORS”. The arrow labeled “Macro arrow meso” points toward “ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS”. The arrow labeled “Macro arrow micro” extends downward toward “INDIVIDUAL CONDITIONS”. On the right side at the macro level appears the section labeled “MACRO OUTCOMES”. This section lists four categories. “Environmental (for example reduced carbon emissions)”. “Institutional (for example policy development and refinement)”. “Economic (for example positive contribution to a low-carbon economy)”. “Social (for example societal well-being)”. At the meso level, the label “A. SITUATIONAL” appears on the left side of the diagram. The central section labeled “ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS” lists the following elements. “Company characteristics (for example firm size, firm age, industry)”. “Governance mechanisms (for example board diversity, ethical orientation, carbon committee, external assurer teams)”. “Carbon practices (for example carbon assurance guidelines, carbon incentives, standardized procedures, emission levels)”. A diagonal downward arrow extends from “ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS” toward “INDIVIDUAL CONDITIONS”. A horizontal arrow labeled “D. MESO-LEVEL ASSOCIATIONS” extends from “ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS” toward the right and points to “ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES”. The section labeled “ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES” lists four outcomes. “Financial (for example reduced cost of debt, carbon cost reductions, enhanced financial reporting)”. “Carbon disclosures (for example credible carbon findings, quality carbon reporting, optimized enterprise strategy)”. “Carbon performance (for example energy savings, reduced carbon emissions)”. “Corporate reputation (for example stakeholder relationships, organizational legitimacy)”. From “ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES”, a diagonal arrow labeled “Meso arrow macro” extends upward toward “MACRO OUTCOMES”. At the micro level, the section labeled “INDIVIDUAL CONDITIONS” lists three elements. “Carbon-specific human capital factors (for example education, training, practical experience)”. “Personal characteristics (for example personality traits, objectivity, independence)”. “Ethical orientation (for example integrity, knowledge regulations)”. A horizontal arrow labeled “B. ACTION FORMATION” extends from “INDIVIDUAL CONDITIONS” toward the right side of the diagram and points to “INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS”. The section labeled “INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS” lists four behaviors. “Compliance with carbon laws or regulations (for example G H G statement verification)”. “Management of carbon performance (for example evaluation of carbon performance and carbon institutions)”. “Management of carbon assurance processes (for example development and checking of carbon assurance processes, checking data accuracy)”. “Stakeholder management (for example addressing of stakeholder concerns)”. From “INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS”, a diagonal arrow labeled “Micro arrow meso” points toward “ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES”. Another diagonal arrow labeled “Micro arrow macro” extends upward toward “MACRO OUTCOMES”. A label “C. TRANSFORMATIONAL” positioned at the far right is shown.Carbon assurance from a microfoundations perspective. Source: Authors’ own work