Figure 2
Three graphs illustrate stress-strain relationships, isotropic hardening, and force-displacement data, showing experimental results and Finite Element Model comparisons with specific axes and data points.The image includes three graphs labelled a, b, and c. Graph a depicts a stress versus strain curve, with stress measured in megapascals on the vertical axis and strain measured in millimetres per millimetre on the horizontal axis. Graph b represents a plot showing multimodal isotropic hardening, with stress in megapascals on the vertical axis and plastic strain in metres per square metre on the horizontal axis. A temperature measurement of twenty one degrees Celsius is noted. Graph c illustrates force in kilonewtons on the vertical axis plotted against displacement in millimetres on the horizontal axis, comparing experimental results and those from Finite Element Modelling, F E M. The data for the experiment and the F E M data are shown as connected points with lines to represent trends in results.

Stress–strain curves: (a) experimental uniaxial test and (b) simulation of the tensile testing of the PLA structure. Reused from Otieno et al. (2026) under Open Access License. (c) Comparison between experimental and FEM compression loading for sample with relative density of 0.5. The results verify our numerical model for the following simulations

Source: Figure by authors

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