Figure 1
A line graph showing cumulative returns of various DRL agents and benchmarks from 2023 to 2025. The horizontal axis represents the date ranging from January 2023 to October 2025. The vertical axis represents cumulative returns ranging from 0.0 to 0.5. The graph includes multiple lines representing different agents and benchmarks: A 2 C, D D P G, S A C, P P O, T D 3, R E C U R R E N T P P O, T Q C, E Q U A L W E I G H T, and M I N V A R. Each line shows the trend of cumulative returns over time. P P O achieves the highest cumulative performance, followed by T D 3, while S A C and T Q C remain closer to benchmark levels.Median cumulative returns of DRL agents and benchmarks (2023–2025). PPO achieves the highest cumulative performance, followed by TD3, while SAC and TQC remain closer to benchmark levels. The results represent the median of ten independent runs using five Vietnamese equities