Innovations in Language and Literacy Instruction

The title of this chapter intentionally uses the word “instruction” rather than learning. An explanation of this usage is in order. Learning is an intervening variable between instruction and some outcome measure. That simply means that what we label learning is not directly observable—it must be inferred by showing that some measure improves (or not) as a result of some instruction. Outcome measures are many and varied. They can be simple measures— answering questions about text or responding to oral language in a variety of appropriate ways. If learning has occurred, the performance after instruction will be better than it was prior to instruction. Learning is not under the direct control of either a learner or a teacher. What is under the teacher’s control is instruction. Instruction can take many different forms. A traditional form is for a teacher to deliver a curriculum. Other forms include instruction without a traditional teacher delivered either by textbooks, computers, or even trial and error. A learner can, for example, choose to spend more time repeating or practicing material in order to improve outcomes. Learning to speak a language, for example, involves just such a format. What can be manipulated (or innovated) are the external conditions, not the internal learning. This chapter will deal with the innovations in these external conditions.