Chapter 11: Implicit Theories and Responses to Achievement Setbacks

For a long time, intelligence, self-confidence, and self-esteem are believed to be the most important contributors to major achievement outcomes, including performance outcomes, as well as motivational, affective and behavioral responses to achievement setbacks. In this chapter, we review evidence that challenges these assumptions. Despite psychologists’ and educators’ faith in the psychological benefits of intelligence, self-esteem, and self-confidence, attempts to enhance intelligence and positive self-evaluation do not always lead to the intended positive outcomes. We also propose a meaning system approach to self-regulated learning, which emphasizes the role of students’ beliefs in intelligence and in the ability-effort-performance relationships as mediators of students’ responses to academic challenges. We propose that adaptive, mastery-oriented responses are likely to occur when students subscribe to a dynamic, growth-focused meaning system, which is characterized by the beliefs that (a) intelligence is malleable, (b) effort will lead to gains in intellectual abilities, and (c) performance reflects the amount of extra effort that is required to attain one’s achievement goals. In contrast, maladaptive, helpless responses are likely to occur when students adopt a static, evaluation-focused meaning system, which is constituted by the beliefs that (a) intelligence is fixed, (b) only students with limited intelligence need to work hard to compensate for their inaptitude, and (c) performance reflects one’s fixed intelligence. We believe that the proposed meaning system framework has important implications for facilitating self-regulated learning in schools.