Chapter 2: Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: A Levels-of-Analysis Review of Theory, Measurement, Data Analysis, and Inferences

The purpose of this chapter is to present a comprehensive, qualitative, narrative review of the literature on transformational and charismatic leadership with an explicit focus on levels-of-analysis issues. Over 230 conceptual and empirical publications (i.e., books, book chapters, and journal articles) in these areas of leadership are reviewed and coded in terms of the degree of appropriate inclusion and use of levels of analysis in theory formulation, construct/variable measurement, data analytic techniques, and inference drawing. In general, while the literature on transformational and charismatic leadership is vast and growing, levels-of-analysis issues are often ignored, misspecified, misused, or abused. Only a few studies have addressed levels-of- analysis issues appropriately in theory, measurement, data analysis, and inference drawing. Implications for future research and advancement of study in the field are discussed.