Chapter 4: Out-of-School-Time (OST) Programs as Mathematics Support for Females

Females have gained ground in mathematics in relation to males, yet many areas of concern remain that might be addressed, in part, by learning opportunities that take place outside of school hours. Some recent research findings in the U.S. indicate that girls now perform as well as boys on standardized mathematics tests (e.g., Hyde, Lindberg, Linn, Ellis, & Williams, 2008). Others show that females score below males on the mathematics sections of important standardized national and international tests. For example, males significantly outperformed females in 35 of 57 countries on the 2006 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2007). Gender gaps favoring males are particularly pronounced at the highest achievement levels (e.g., Andreescu, Gallian, Kane, & Mertz, 2008). Females’ participation in mathematics (e.g., mathematics clubs/contests, college majors, and careers) also remains low. In the United States, for instance, females earned 57.5% of all 2005–06 bachelor’s degrees but only 45.1% of those conferred in mathematics and statistics (Institute of Education Sciences, 2008). In the world of work, women comprise only 25% of U.S. workers classified into Computer and Mathematical Occupations (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). Moreover, females display a host of negative affects toward mathematics in comparison with males, such as weak self-concept and self-confidence, anxiety, and lower interest (e.g., Frenzel, Pekrun, & Goetz, 2007; Halpern, Aronson et al., 2007; Ma & Cartwright, 2003; McGraw, Lubienski, & Strutchens, 2006).