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Trade Dynamics in the 21st Century: The African Perspective

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Emerald Publishing Limited

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https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80686-181-1

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978-1-80686-181-1

ISBN print:

978-1-80686-182-8

Publication date:

2026

Appendix 8.1.

Summary Statistics for Extraction and Environmental Indicators.

Countries/Region	CO₂ Emissions	TGH	REC	TNRR	Adj. Sav	CO₂ Emissions	TGH	REC	TNRR	Adj. Sav
Countries/Region		2000–2010			2011–2021
Angola	17,693.27	67,679.80	62.91	40.80	0.00	25,837.22	80,654.76	52.12	26.96	0.00
Angola	[2,367.27]	[6,835.67]	[7.71]	[9.48]	[0.00]	[3,565.69]	[5,315.70]	[4.52]	[7.37]	[0.00]
Botswana	4,040.70	13,456.77	32.88	3.10	1.86	6,164.80	13,959.45	26.36	1.11	1.10
Botswana	[279.47]	[4,074.20]	[3.89]	[2.08]	[1.57]	[1,528.79]	[4,326.90]	[1.05]	[0.53]	[0.28]
Comoros	133.68	355.28	67.95	1.47	0.00	231.41	516.19	58.20	1.91	0.00
Comoros	[24.73]	[35.29]	[4.02]	[0.20]	[0.00]	[70.51]	[77.20]	[9.08]	[0.38]	[0.00]
Congo, Dem. Rep.	2,133.02	44,600.16	97.56	23.15	0.83	3,230.80	52,639.76	95.69	23.43	3.05
Congo, Dem. Rep.	[398.38]	[5,119.15]	[0.54]	[6.30]	[1.02]	[776.74]	[2,788.92]	[1.30]	[7.10]	[5.99]
Eswatini	1,013.49	2,669.59	67.34	2.88	0.00	1,021.63	2,825.86	68.90	3.60	0.03
Eswatini	[69.84]	[46.24]	[4.68]	[0.76]	[0.00]	[131.70]	[162.20]	[2.81]	[0.64]	[0.12]
Lesotho	1915.25	3,696.24	55.34	4.36	0.00	2,392.16	4,106.24	41.11	5.03	0.00
Lesotho	[132.99]	[138.51]	[1.09]	[0.98]	[0.00]	[282.49]	[343.58]	[3.57]	[1.19]	[0.00]
Madagascar	1,640.92	25,916.96	85.45	5.18	0.00	3,080.18	28,707.82	83.04	6.60	0.02
Madagascar	[190.62]	[1770.67]	[1.55]	[1.36]	[0.00]	[473.87]	[1,237.27]	[1.25]	[1.36]	[0.08]
Malawi	913.54	4,805.41	82.19	7.66	0.00	1,294.97	8,874.08	77.31	7.21	0.00
Malawi	[67.23]	[833.04]	[1.14]	[1.52]	[0.00]	[252.97]	[1936.60]	[4.09]	[2.60]	[0.00]
Mauritius	3,031.10	4,979.19	16.77	0.02	0.00	3,933.00	6,393.27	10.42	0.04	0.00
Mauritius	[430.36]	[529.73]	[2.93]	[0.03]	[0.00]	[198.98]	[333.94]	[1.13]	[0.04]	[0.00]
Mozambique	1948.94	24,661.41	90.81	8.55	0.01	5,714.41	31,532.45	81.49	13.57	0.03
Mozambique	[420.61]	[2,159.79]	[3.39]	[1.60]	[0.01]	[1,634.62]	[2,445.39]	[2.84]	[2.39]	[0.06]
Namibia	2,525.12	11,150.91	33.69	1.80	0.86	3,956.74	13,305.67	30.55	2.10	0.91
Namibia	[362.23]	[1,203.78]	[1.85]	[1.55]	[1.11]	[340.28]	[2,801.34]	[0.90]	[0.89]	[0.55]
Seychelles	380.03	478.79	1.03	0.12	0.00	513.32	657.14	1.26	0.12	0.00
Seychelles	[48.61]	[56.17]	[0.22]	[0.03]	[0.00]	[82.09]	[99.51]	[0.26]	[0.02]	[0.00]
South Africa	370,968.78	463,478.92	11.34	5.55	0.73	428,751.45	535,400.28	8.38	4.96	0.83
South Africa	[44,801.88]	[51,329.35]	[2.49]	[2.39]	[0.47]	[16,973.30]	[17,610.88]	[0.69]	[1.67]	[0.71]
Tanzania	4,996.49	56,578.77	91.50	5.25	0.64	11,290.09	79,249.44	85.83	5.34	0.98
Tanzania	[1,385.65]	[6,345.47]	[1.27]	[0.88]	[0.33]	[2,109.88]	[5,882.65]	[1.49]	[1.30]	[0.80]
Zambia	2,139.64	26,901.65	89.35	14.33	3.92	5,616.82	34,057.90	83.35	14.64	4.58
Zambia	[263.32]	[2,136.04]	[0.55]	[4.75]	[3.66]	[1725.50]	[2,178.77]	[1.79]	[7.31]	[5.51]
Zimbabwe	10,363.42	27,461.33	78.18	8.75	2.74	10,932.76	29,073.33	80.85	5.36	2.22
Zimbabwe	[2024.25]	[2,158.5]	[4.35]	[4.63]	[2.53]	[1,254.05]	[1,554.11]	[1.93]	[1.21]	[0.71]
SADC	26,614.84	48,679.45	60.27	8.31	0.72	32,122.61	57,622.1	55.30	7.62	0.86
SADC	[91,935.8]	[112,487.3]	[31.59]	[10.45]	[1.16]	[105,954.3]	[129,981]	[31.55]	[8.04]	[1.34]

Countries/Region	CO₂ Emissions	TGH	REC	TNRR	Adj. Sav	CO₂ Emissions	TGH	REC	TNRR	Adj. Sav
Countries/Region		2000–2010			2011–2021
Angola	17,693.27	67,679.80	62.91	40.80	0.00	25,837.22	80,654.76	52.12	26.96	0.00
Angola	[2,367.27]	[6,835.67]	[7.71]	[9.48]	[0.00]	[3,565.69]	[5,315.70]	[4.52]	[7.37]	[0.00]
Botswana	4,040.70	13,456.77	32.88	3.10	1.86	6,164.80	13,959.45	26.36	1.11	1.10
Botswana	[279.47]	[4,074.20]	[3.89]	[2.08]	[1.57]	[1,528.79]	[4,326.90]	[1.05]	[0.53]	[0.28]
Comoros	133.68	355.28	67.95	1.47	0.00	231.41	516.19	58.20	1.91	0.00
Comoros	[24.73]	[35.29]	[4.02]	[0.20]	[0.00]	[70.51]	[77.20]	[9.08]	[0.38]	[0.00]
Congo, Dem. Rep.	2,133.02	44,600.16	97.56	23.15	0.83	3,230.80	52,639.76	95.69	23.43	3.05
Congo, Dem. Rep.	[398.38]	[5,119.15]	[0.54]	[6.30]	[1.02]	[776.74]	[2,788.92]	[1.30]	[7.10]	[5.99]
Eswatini	1,013.49	2,669.59	67.34	2.88	0.00	1,021.63	2,825.86	68.90	3.60	0.03
Eswatini	[69.84]	[46.24]	[4.68]	[0.76]	[0.00]	[131.70]	[162.20]	[2.81]	[0.64]	[0.12]
Lesotho	1915.25	3,696.24	55.34	4.36	0.00	2,392.16	4,106.24	41.11	5.03	0.00
Lesotho	[132.99]	[138.51]	[1.09]	[0.98]	[0.00]	[282.49]	[343.58]	[3.57]	[1.19]	[0.00]
Madagascar	1,640.92	25,916.96	85.45	5.18	0.00	3,080.18	28,707.82	83.04	6.60	0.02
Madagascar	[190.62]	[1770.67]	[1.55]	[1.36]	[0.00]	[473.87]	[1,237.27]	[1.25]	[1.36]	[0.08]
Malawi	913.54	4,805.41	82.19	7.66	0.00	1,294.97	8,874.08	77.31	7.21	0.00
Malawi	[67.23]	[833.04]	[1.14]	[1.52]	[0.00]	[252.97]	[1936.60]	[4.09]	[2.60]	[0.00]
Mauritius	3,031.10	4,979.19	16.77	0.02	0.00	3,933.00	6,393.27	10.42	0.04	0.00
Mauritius	[430.36]	[529.73]	[2.93]	[0.03]	[0.00]	[198.98]	[333.94]	[1.13]	[0.04]	[0.00]
Mozambique	1948.94	24,661.41	90.81	8.55	0.01	5,714.41	31,532.45	81.49	13.57	0.03
Mozambique	[420.61]	[2,159.79]	[3.39]	[1.60]	[0.01]	[1,634.62]	[2,445.39]	[2.84]	[2.39]	[0.06]
Namibia	2,525.12	11,150.91	33.69	1.80	0.86	3,956.74	13,305.67	30.55	2.10	0.91
Namibia	[362.23]	[1,203.78]	[1.85]	[1.55]	[1.11]	[340.28]	[2,801.34]	[0.90]	[0.89]	[0.55]
Seychelles	380.03	478.79	1.03	0.12	0.00	513.32	657.14	1.26	0.12	0.00
Seychelles	[48.61]	[56.17]	[0.22]	[0.03]	[0.00]	[82.09]	[99.51]	[0.26]	[0.02]	[0.00]
South Africa	370,968.78	463,478.92	11.34	5.55	0.73	428,751.45	535,400.28	8.38	4.96	0.83
South Africa	[44,801.88]	[51,329.35]	[2.49]	[2.39]	[0.47]	[16,973.30]	[17,610.88]	[0.69]	[1.67]	[0.71]
Tanzania	4,996.49	56,578.77	91.50	5.25	0.64	11,290.09	79,249.44	85.83	5.34	0.98
Tanzania	[1,385.65]	[6,345.47]	[1.27]	[0.88]	[0.33]	[2,109.88]	[5,882.65]	[1.49]	[1.30]	[0.80]
Zambia	2,139.64	26,901.65	89.35	14.33	3.92	5,616.82	34,057.90	83.35	14.64	4.58
Zambia	[263.32]	[2,136.04]	[0.55]	[4.75]	[3.66]	[1725.50]	[2,178.77]	[1.79]	[7.31]	[5.51]
Zimbabwe	10,363.42	27,461.33	78.18	8.75	2.74	10,932.76	29,073.33	80.85	5.36	2.22
Zimbabwe	[2024.25]	[2,158.5]	[4.35]	[4.63]	[2.53]	[1,254.05]	[1,554.11]	[1.93]	[1.21]	[0.71]
SADC	26,614.84	48,679.45	60.27	8.31	0.72	32,122.61	57,622.1	55.30	7.62	0.86
SADC	[91,935.8]	[112,487.3]	[31.59]	[10.45]	[1.16]	[105,954.3]	[129,981]	[31.55]	[8.04]	[1.34]

Appendix 8.2.

Summary Statistics for Trade and Vulnerability Indicators.

Countries/Region	Exports	Net Exports	Vulnerability Index	Readiness Index	Exports	Net Exports	Vulnerability Index	Readiness Index
Countries/Region		2000–2010				2011–2021
Angola	62.16	16.55	0.50	0.20	49.73	13.84	0.51	0.23
Angola	[5.77]	[−3.10]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[10.89]	[4.11]	[0.00]	[0.03]
Botswana	48.84	6.41	0.46	0.39	46.33	1.16	0.43	0.42
Botswana	[5.67]	[−1.11]	[0.01]	[0.01]	[9.53]	[0.73]	[0.01]	[0.02]
Comoros	8.91	−18.28	0.55	0.29	9.16	−17.96	0.54	0.29
Comoros	[0.35]	[−1.05]	[0.01]	[0.03]	[2.03]	[0.40]	[0.01]	[0.03]
DRC	25.14	−4.51	0.57	0.19	27.92	−4.31	0.57	0.18
DRC	[10.58]	[−1.88]	[0.00]	[0.04]	[5.58]	[0.17]	[0.00]	[0.01]
Eswatini	64.03	−6.83	0.50	0.34	51.80	−4.35	0.48	0.32
Eswatini	[12.86]	[−2.50]	[0.01]	[0.02]	[3.52]	[1.89]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Lesotho	48.26	−62.26	0.49	0.29	43.27	−51.22	0.48	0.31
Lesotho	[5.67]	[2.70]	[0.01]	[0.02]	[3.84]	[−2.36]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Madagascar	22.16	−10.18	0.58	0.30	23.23	−8.35	0.56	0.26
Madagascar	[4.38]	[−4.23]	[0.01]	[0.02]	[4.02]	[2.02]	[0.01]	[0.00]
Malawi	—	—	0.57	0.31	—	—	0.55	0.28
Malawi	—	—	[0.01]	[0.01]	—	—	[0.00]	[0.01]
Mauritius	56.67	−4.40	0.44	0.46	50.84	−5.49	0.43	0.54
Mauritius	[5.79]	[1.25]	[0.00]	[0.02]	[4.57]	[−1.40]	[0.00]	[0.02]
Mozambique	—	—	0.50	0.28	—	—	0.49	0.27
Mozambique	—	—	[0.00]	[0.01]	—	—	[0.00]	[0.01]
Namibia	45.48	−6.30	0.49	0.36	39.77	−11.36	0.47	0.38
Namibia	[4.85]	[−5.70]	[0.01]	[0.01]	[3.78]	[−3.74]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Seychelles	85.07	−7.94	0.48	0.43	87.23	−10.00	0.46	0.44
Seychelles	[10.20]	[−3.68]	[0.01]	[0.01]	[8.48]	[0.43]	[0.01]	[0.02]
South Africa	26.05	0.78	0.39	0.37	26.00	0.67	0.39	0.36
South Africa	[2.71]	[−0.91]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[1.15]	[−1.07]	[0.00]	[0.01]
Tanzania	16.59	−4.22	0.53	0.31	16.28	−4.77	0.51	0.30
Tanzania	[2.88]	[−3.59]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[2.90]	[−4.23]	[0.01]	[0.00]
Zambia	29.76	−3.42	0.50	0.31	33.34	−0.43	0.49	0.32
Zambia	[4.13]	[−0.56]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[5.34]	[2.39]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Zimbabwe	33.61	−10.30	0.51	0.20	27.89	−10.44	0.51	0.20
Zimbabwe	[5.73]	[−4.26]	[0.00]	[0.02]	[4.59]	[−4.71]	[0.00]	[0.02]
SADC	40.91	−8.21	0.50	0.31	38.06	−8.07	0.49	0.32
SADC	[21.37]	[17.57]	[0.05]	[0.08]	[19.43]	[14.48]	[0.05]	[0.09]

Countries/Region	Exports	Net Exports	Vulnerability Index	Readiness Index	Exports	Net Exports	Vulnerability Index	Readiness Index
Countries/Region		2000–2010				2011–2021
Angola	62.16	16.55	0.50	0.20	49.73	13.84	0.51	0.23
Angola	[5.77]	[−3.10]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[10.89]	[4.11]	[0.00]	[0.03]
Botswana	48.84	6.41	0.46	0.39	46.33	1.16	0.43	0.42
Botswana	[5.67]	[−1.11]	[0.01]	[0.01]	[9.53]	[0.73]	[0.01]	[0.02]
Comoros	8.91	−18.28	0.55	0.29	9.16	−17.96	0.54	0.29
Comoros	[0.35]	[−1.05]	[0.01]	[0.03]	[2.03]	[0.40]	[0.01]	[0.03]
DRC	25.14	−4.51	0.57	0.19	27.92	−4.31	0.57	0.18
DRC	[10.58]	[−1.88]	[0.00]	[0.04]	[5.58]	[0.17]	[0.00]	[0.01]
Eswatini	64.03	−6.83	0.50	0.34	51.80	−4.35	0.48	0.32
Eswatini	[12.86]	[−2.50]	[0.01]	[0.02]	[3.52]	[1.89]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Lesotho	48.26	−62.26	0.49	0.29	43.27	−51.22	0.48	0.31
Lesotho	[5.67]	[2.70]	[0.01]	[0.02]	[3.84]	[−2.36]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Madagascar	22.16	−10.18	0.58	0.30	23.23	−8.35	0.56	0.26
Madagascar	[4.38]	[−4.23]	[0.01]	[0.02]	[4.02]	[2.02]	[0.01]	[0.00]
Malawi	—	—	0.57	0.31	—	—	0.55	0.28
Malawi	—	—	[0.01]	[0.01]	—	—	[0.00]	[0.01]
Mauritius	56.67	−4.40	0.44	0.46	50.84	−5.49	0.43	0.54
Mauritius	[5.79]	[1.25]	[0.00]	[0.02]	[4.57]	[−1.40]	[0.00]	[0.02]
Mozambique	—	—	0.50	0.28	—	—	0.49	0.27
Mozambique	—	—	[0.00]	[0.01]	—	—	[0.00]	[0.01]
Namibia	45.48	−6.30	0.49	0.36	39.77	−11.36	0.47	0.38
Namibia	[4.85]	[−5.70]	[0.01]	[0.01]	[3.78]	[−3.74]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Seychelles	85.07	−7.94	0.48	0.43	87.23	−10.00	0.46	0.44
Seychelles	[10.20]	[−3.68]	[0.01]	[0.01]	[8.48]	[0.43]	[0.01]	[0.02]
South Africa	26.05	0.78	0.39	0.37	26.00	0.67	0.39	0.36
South Africa	[2.71]	[−0.91]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[1.15]	[−1.07]	[0.00]	[0.01]
Tanzania	16.59	−4.22	0.53	0.31	16.28	−4.77	0.51	0.30
Tanzania	[2.88]	[−3.59]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[2.90]	[−4.23]	[0.01]	[0.00]
Zambia	29.76	−3.42	0.50	0.31	33.34	−0.43	0.49	0.32
Zambia	[4.13]	[−0.56]	[0.00]	[0.01]	[5.34]	[2.39]	[0.01]	[0.01]
Zimbabwe	33.61	−10.30	0.51	0.20	27.89	−10.44	0.51	0.20
Zimbabwe	[5.73]	[−4.26]	[0.00]	[0.02]	[4.59]	[−4.71]	[0.00]	[0.02]
SADC	40.91	−8.21	0.50	0.31	38.06	−8.07	0.49	0.32
SADC	[21.37]	[17.57]	[0.05]	[0.08]	[19.43]	[14.48]	[0.05]	[0.09]

Appendix 8.3.

List of Variables and Sources.

S/N	Variable	Source
1	Main minerals/resources with commercial quantities	Compilations from country reports and other published documents
2	Minerals with potential commercial interests
3	Minerals in non-commercial quantities
4	CO₂ emissions (kt – 2020 estimates)	World Bank (2024)
5	Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt − 2020 estimates)	World Bank (2024)
6	Extractives dependence index (EDI - 2011)	Hailu and Kipgen (2015)
7	Vulnerability index	ND-GAIN
8	Readiness index	ND-GAIN
9	Adjusted savings: Mineral depletion (% of GNI) (Adj. Sav)	World Bank (2024)
10	Exports of goods and services (% of GDP)	World Bank (2024)
11	Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt of CO₂ equivalent) (TGH)	World Bank (2024)
12	Total natural resources rents (% of GDP) (TNRR)	World Bank (2024)
13	Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) (REC)	World Bank (2024)

S/N	Variable	Source
1	Main minerals/resources with commercial quantities	Compilations from country reports and other published documents
2	Minerals with potential commercial interests
3	Minerals in non-commercial quantities
4	CO₂ emissions (kt – 2020 estimates)	World Bank (2024)
5	Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt − 2020 estimates)	World Bank (2024)
6	Extractives dependence index (EDI - 2011)	Hailu and Kipgen (2015)
7	Vulnerability index	ND-GAIN
8	Readiness index	ND-GAIN
9	Adjusted savings: Mineral depletion (% of GNI) (Adj. Sav)	World Bank (2024)
10	Exports of goods and services (% of GDP)	World Bank (2024)
11	Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt of CO₂ equivalent) (TGH)	World Bank (2024)
12	Total natural resources rents (% of GDP) (TNRR)	World Bank (2024)
13	Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) (REC)	World Bank (2024)

Appendix 8.4.

List of Countries Used in the Study and Their Abbreviations.

S/N	Abbreviations	Countries
1	Ang	Angola
2	Bot	Botswana
3	Com	Comoros
4	DRC	Congo, Dem. Rep.
5	Esw	Eswatini
6	Les	Lesotho
7	Mad	Madagascar
8	Mal	Malawi
9	Mau	Mauritius
10	Moz	Mozambique
11	Nam	Namibia
12	Sey	Seychelles
13	SAf	South Africa
14	Tan	Tanzania
15	Zam	Zambia
16	Zim	Zimbabwe

S/N	Abbreviations	Countries
1	Ang	Angola
2	Bot	Botswana
3	Com	Comoros
4	DRC	Congo, Dem. Rep.
5	Esw	Eswatini
6	Les	Lesotho
7	Mad	Madagascar
8	Mal	Malawi
9	Mau	Mauritius
10	Moz	Mozambique
11	Nam	Namibia
12	Sey	Seychelles
13	SAf	South Africa
14	Tan	Tanzania
15	Zam	Zambia
16	Zim	Zimbabwe

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