Prelims

Contemporary Gender Transformations in South Asia

Contemporary Gender Transformations in South Asia: Transcending the Archetype of Womanhood

By

Reazul Haque

University of Dhaka, Bangladesh

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – India – Malaysia – China

Emerald Publishing Limited

Emerald Publishing, Floor 5, Northspring, 21-23 Wellington Street, Leeds LS1 4DL

First edition 2025

Copyright © 2025 Reazul Haque.

Published under exclusive licence by Emerald Publishing Limited.

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ISBN: 978-1-83708-369-5 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-83708-368-8 (Online)

ISBN: 978-1-83708-370-1 (Epub)

To

Mahfuza Haque Rideta

ADB

Asian Development Bank

AWN

Afghan Women Network

BGMEA

Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association

BISP

Pakistan's Benazir Income Support Programme

BMRF

Bangladesh Men's Rights Foundation

BRAC

Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee

CEDAW

The Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women

CID

Criminal Investigation Department

CPR

Contraceptive Prevalence Rate

CSR

Child Sex Ratio image

DB

Detective Branch

DBSS

Didi Bahini Sewa Samaj

DRR

Disaster Risk Reduction

DU

Dhaka University

EVAW

Ending Violence Against Women

GAP

Gender Action Plan

GBV

Gender-Based Violence

GESI

Gender Equality and Social Inclusion

GPPAC

The Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict

IPU

Inter-Parliamentary Union

IPV

Intimate Partner Violence

MARD

Men Against Rape and Discrimination

MWCD

Ministry of Women and Child Development

NFE

Non-Formal Education

NREGS

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

OECD

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PBI

Police Bureau of Investigation

SANWED

South Asian Network for Widows' Empowerment in Development

SARD

The South Asia Department

SDGs

Sustainable Development Goals

SEWA

Self-Employed Women's Association

SHGs

Self-Help Groups

SIGI

Social Institutions and Gender Index

SP

Strategic Plan

STEM

Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

UNICEF

United Nations Children's Fund

WEP

Women Entrepreneurship Platform

WHO

World Health Organization

WIG

Women in Governance

WISCOMP

Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace

WRI

The South Asia Women's Resilience Index

WVS

World Value Survey

Reazul Haque is a Professor and the Former Chair at the Department of Development Studies, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. His academic journey is adorned with significant milestones, including his roles as a Visiting Research Fellow at IDE-JETRO, Japan, and an Affiliate Faculty Member at the Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, USA. With over two decades of dedicated contribution to the domain of gender studies, Dr Haque's expertise is widely acknowledged. His scholarly pursuits span a broad spectrum of Public Policy and Social Development, focusing on the interplay between Gender, Power, and Discrimination, the nuances of Sexuality, the ethical dimensions within NGOs and Development Management, Qualitative Research Methodology, and Diversity and Inclusion. Dr Haque's notable works include the seminal book on his PhD thesis titled Voices from the Edge: Justice, Agency, and the Plight of Floating Sex Workers in Dhaka, Bangladesh, published by LIT Verlag, Gmbh Co. KG: Wien (AT), CH 8032 Zurich (2015).

The landscape of gender politics and feminist movements is not just evolving; it is undergoing a monumental transformation fueled by powerful economic, political, and cultural shifts that demand our immediate attention and action. In the revolutionary book Contemporary Gender Transformations in South Asia: Transcending the Archetype of Womanhood, Professor Reazul Haque calls upon readers to engage deeply with the multifaceted intersections of feminism, state capitalism, and market forces in South Asia. This insightful exploration reveals how feminist agendas not only interact with but also confront, challenge, and sometimes align with the entrenched power structures that dominate our societies. By championing an expression-first approach to gender, Professor Haque courageously dismantles the conventional narratives that too often reduce gender discourse to simplistic identity-based or interactional binaries. We stand at a critical juncture – now is the moment to adopt a more sophisticated understanding of gender that embraces the complexities of our world and emphasizes the urgent need for a transformative feminist perspective capable of sparking meaningful change across all layers of society.

The work presented here is both timely and necessary. As the world moves toward a more interconnected and globalized reality, feminist movements must confront the implications of state-led economic reforms, neoliberal policies, and the commodification of feminist ideals. This book critically examines these themes, offering a nuanced discussion of how feminism in South Asia has been institutionalized, politicized, and redefined through the lens of state capitalism. The text does not merely recount historical feminist struggles; rather, it interrogates how contemporary feminist activism is shaped by political hybridization, generational transformation, and digital advocacy.

Contemporary Gender Transformations in South Asia provides a compelling academic framework that adeptly intertwines feminist theory with the pressing realities of governance, economic policy, and transnational activism. It courageously tackles profound questions: Can feminism truly thrive within state-controlled capitalist structures without being co-opted? In what ways do neoliberal and authoritarian regimes in South Asia decisively shape gender politics? Furthermore, can market-driven feminist initiatives genuinely achieve gender equality, or are they merely reinforcing systemic disparities? These inquiries are complex and nuanced, and this book not only confronts these dilemmas head-on but also offers critical insights that empower readers to navigate the intricate landscape of contemporary feminism. By engaging with these challenges and opportunities, readers will gain a robust, informed perspective on the transformative potential of feminist movements in South Asia.

Beyond theory, the book adopts an analytical approach to understanding gender expressions in South Asia by examining the historical and cultural contexts that shape feminist discourse. It critiques the dominant archetypes of womanhood traditionally used to define gender roles and challenges readers to embrace a more intersectional, inclusive, and dynamic understanding of gender. By deconstructing these established paradigms, Professor Haque fosters a space for discussing alternative pathways to gender inclusivity and equality that do not rely solely on state intervention or market forces.

This book serves as an invaluable resource for scholars, activists, and policymakers. It unpacks the complex relationships between feminism, state structures, and market-driven reforms. Additionally, it offers a compelling critique of feminism's institutionalization, cautioning against the potential dilution of feminist ideals while also exploring ways activism can be harnessed to achieve meaningful change.

In an era where feminist movements are increasingly shaped and reshaped by political and economic systems, Contemporary Gender Transformations in South Asia: Transcending the Archetype of Womanhood emerges as an indispensable guide. This compelling work not only deepens our understanding of the evolving dynamics of gender advocacy but also challenges us to reconsider and expand our definitions of feminism beyond traditional boundaries. It dares us to envision a future that is not just inclusive but transformative, urging everyone to engage actively in the quest for true gender equality. For anyone eager to grasp the intricate complexities of feminism in the 21st century – especially within the rapidly evolving sociopolitical landscape of South Asia – this book is an essential read that promises to inspire and provoke critical thought.

Helal Hossain Dhali¹

In a perfectly rational world, the “what” questions, which imply a value-neutral perspective on gender dynamics, would have minimal discrepancies between radically theoretical ideals and practical realities. However, the identities and interactions among different genders are less predictable because the broader human society mediates them. Due to this interactional characteristic, gender is more than an essentialist identity; it is simultaneously fluid and intersectional, reflecting agency and influence from broader discourses. In this context, “agency” signifies that individuals have the power to define and express their gender identities, yet dominant historical patterns influence these identities and interactions. The broader discourse – including societal norms, cultural narratives, and political and economic structures – plays a vital role in shaping gender identities and dictating how they are perceived and interacted with. Fluidity and intersectionality offer us a framework of equilibrium concerning the demand- and supply-side dynamics of gender identities and interactions within and between agencies and broader discourses. Aligning with Sandra Bem's Gender Schema Theory and Judith Butler's Theory of Performativity, these equilibria, being both mobile and elastically cyclical, introduce intersubjectivity between the poststructural realms of feminism and postfeminism. Contemporary feminist scholarship often gravitates toward the supply-side dynamics of gender interactions, even when there is frequent acknowledgment of reciprocity from poststructural perspectives. While deficits on the demand side are commonly justified due to their interpretive intangibility within fluid intersubjectivity, they encourage us to ask some “why” and “how” questions regarding gender expressions. The “why” questions explore the variations of expressions within relatively similar poststructural frameworks of feminism, while the “how” questions consider how these expressions can be utilized through various forms of agency. This discussion leads us closer to postidentities of gender as a bounded rational paradigm, where demand-side reciprocity transcends beyond the relative essentialism of identities.

This book investigates this complex phenomenon in South Asia, critiquing the conventional woman-centric narrative in understanding gender dynamics. While womanhood – a construct that defines roles and behaviors based on sex, often relegating women to subordinate societal positions – is significant, it fails to capture the region's gender diversity adequately. By adopting an expression-first approach instead of focusing solely on identity-interaction conflicts, we aim to move beyond this archetypal view and acknowledge the varied experiences and roles shaping gender dynamics. From a contemporary sociological standpoint, the quest for remodeling inclusivity as an alternative paradigm for empowerment presents challenges. First, when recognized as acknowledging postidentity and integrating simultaneously, inclusivity risks overlooking specific issues relevant to niche groups, potentially leading to discrimination. Bounded rationality, being such “inductive essentialism,” could inadvertently create a form of “incompatible universalism.” Second, treating inclusivity as an expansionary adjustment to intersubjectivity may fail to address the underlying historical patterns entrenched within existing institutions, resulting in radically theoretical ideals that do not translate into radically practical changes. The archetype of womanhood in South Asian gender discourse often remains confined to dominant narratives, neglecting the value of inclusivity resulting from these politicized adaptations. Therefore, deconstructing the womanhood archetype in South Asian gender discourse requires exploring intersectionalities as “intersectionalities of expressions” in postidentities of gender. Furthermore, to counteract the historical patterns influenced by existing institutions – mainly how traditional and contemporary power structures may distort gender expressions in South Asia – it is essential to re-evaluate relational embeddedness in a transformative manner to ensure that all dimensions of womanhood are adequately represented.

In analyzing this transformation, it is vital to recognize what it means to be part of South Asia, extending beyond stereotypical characteristics. Functionalist factors often shape these characteristics, playing a latent role in social, cultural, and institutional expressions. As Sylvia Walby notes, gender discourse in South Asia features diverse gender politics and activism significantly influenced by the state-capitalist system, creating a blend of state and market feminism. Notable indicators regarding sociocultural and political–economic institutions suggest that South Asia is increasingly positioned at lower ranks concerning strong and democratized regimes and the functional liberty of markets. Such conditions often promote the populist development rhetoric in feminism with branding nominal improvements in some gender equity and women empowerment indicators, camouflaging the prevalence of informal institutions with regional ethno-demographic diversities. This system significantly impacts the behaviors and moral codes associated with different gender identities, interfacing between the state and its citizens. In a parallel vein, the competitive political landscape in South Asia ideologically influences this mosaic of ethno-demographic diversities. It can be tangible spaces associated with class, caste, religion, geography, or intangible temporal dimensions related to generations. To counter this complexity, we attempted our discourse analysis as an event-focused, happening “inside” the “geographically” and “ethno-demographically” constituted South Asia. However, these efforts often align with specific strategies and interests and stop short of precipitating a radical shift. Instead, it perpetuates existing power relations, avoiding a direct challenge to the entrenched structures of the archetypes of womanhood.

The book consists of 10 chapters, which evolved from macroscopic realities toward microscopic cognition as we progressed; in other words, from more control tools to more agentic approaches to gender expressions. The first three chapters focus on the broader poststructures that control the projections and interpretations of all gender identities. They mainly cover the integration, disparity, and maintenance of sustainable power relations and explore why certain gender expressions of responses are prevalent in the region. They also formulate the base for the womanhood-deconstructing argument of this book by primarily examining the explicit woman-tilted discourse of gender discrimination. The fourth chapter works as a mediator to intersubjectivity of postidentities, showcasing the transition of individuals' agency within broader institutions toward niche social issues. From here on, the central argument takes over to demonstrate relatively neutral alternative paradigms that implicitly exist but simultaneously deconstruct in the womanhood transformation. The following four chapters, therefore, focus more on how individuals respond and interact while dealing with specific domains of gender expression in South Asia. In these chapters, we want to explore the bounded rational attributes of value neutrality in stereotypes with freedom, objectification and reciprocity, masculinity with religion, and violence with media. Drawing from postidentities views, the last two chapters, as consequences and a way forward of the outcome of their predecessors, have discussed the potential of reconstructing optimally neutral alternative paradigms against established narratives. They reflect the intersectionalities of expressions against the elastic structures of how individuals optimize their relational embeddedness by rethinking empowerment and what can be done through cultural engineering with education. The mosaic is a dynamic arena where these diverse genders and their expressions negotiate, adapt, and sometimes compromise. This interaction fosters the emergence of new subjectivities, stereotypes, and forms of objectification, reflecting the complex survival and growth strategies within these societies.

The book “Contemporary Gender Transformations in South Asia: Transcending the Archetype of Womanhood” is the outcome of my 25 years of teaching experiences. I am thankful to all my teachers from primary school to university and especially to Dr Amrita Chhachhi, Dr Dubravka Žarkov and Dr Thanh Dam Truong of ISS, The Netherlands, Dr. Noore Alam Siddiquee, Dr Barbara Baird, Dr Yvonne Corcoran-Nantes, Late Dr. Heather Brook of the discipline of Women's Studies of Flinders University, Late Professor Delem Ch Barman, Professor Gobinda Chakraborty of Dhaka University for their cordial help. I thank Professor Mizanuddin and Professor Anik Mahmud of Rajshahi University for their inspiration. I want to remember the valuable words of my idol late Professor M. Azaduzzaman (Former Chairman of the University Grants Commission of Bangladesh) who is my source of inspiration in every sphere of life.

Although it is not possible to mention all my friends well-wishers and students who assisted me at various stages of this research, I want to remember a few of them like Dr Helal, Kousik Ahmed Mehedi Hasan Bappy, Barrister Jyotirmoy Barua, without them, it would be impossible to come and finish this book. Their constant support and encouragement made it possible to submit this Book. I will remain grateful to him for the rest of my life. I am grateful to Emerald UK Publishing especially Dr Denial Ridge for his mental support.

No words can adequately express my debt of gratitude to my mother late Mafuza Begum, and my beloved sisters Hamida Banu, Thamina Begum, and Zohora Begum for generating in me a perennial interest in higher education. Without my sisters, I would not be able to come to this stage and thanks will be so little and too formal in this regard. I am also thankful to my brothers Habib, Amin, Iman and my elder brother Nurul Haque. I could not give enough time to the sweetest young members of my family Rideta, Ifti, and Omi because of this book.

Above all, I would like to acknowledge Almighty Allah who enabled me to complete and submit this book.

Professor Reazul Haque, PhD