Telework outcomes in marketing and communication agencies through the lens of creative directors and executives

The move away from traditional office environments is captured by terms such as telecommuting, work from home, remote work, virtual work, flexible work, and telework. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they can emphasize different aspects of non-office-based work, such as location, organizational structure, and technology. Remote work refers broadly to work outside conventional offices, while telework specifically involves using ICTs to perform tasks off-site (Athanasiadou and Theriou, 2021). Driven by technological advances and a growing demand for flexibility, telework has become increasingly popular in various sectors, including creative industries such as marketing and communications (Eurofound, 2022).

Despite its growing prevalence, research on teleworking remains inconclusive, offering a wide range of findings regarding its benefits and drawbacks. While many organizations have implemented telework policies based on presumed positive outcomes, critical questions persist at both the individual and organizational levels. Most studies on telework have focused on employees, leaving managerial perspectives underexplored (Gohoungodji et al., 2023). Belanger et al. (2012) advocate for a multi-level approach, emphasizing that telework outcomes are shaped not only by individual workers but also on their colleagues and supervisors. Similarly, Silva-C et al. (2019) highlight the crucial role of managerial experience in shaping attitudes toward telework implementation, though findings on managers’ perceptions remain inconsistent.

Managers focused on operations are more likely to identify the benefits and disadvantages of teleworking that employees may miss. For instance, telework can facilitate talent acquisition and retention by alleviating the burden of long commutes (DiMartino and Wirth, 1990). Other examples include lower staff turnover, a gain in office space, a positive image of the organization, or on the negative side, a negative impact on the security of internal data (Illegems and Verbeke, 2004). Conversely, employees may be more attuned to the interpersonal and psychological effects of teleworking, including reduced social interaction and challenges to individual well-being. These differences in perspective are significant, as managerial attitudes not only shape the implementation of telework practices but also influence how employees experience and evaluate them (Shipman et al., 2023).

Managers' experiences differ from those of their subordinates, leading to different or even contradictory perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of teleworking (Omorede and Berglund, 2024). Their views reflect a dual perspective: as supervisors aligned with leadership and as employees themselves. Despite their pivotal role in shaping and regulating telework (Llados-Masllorens et al., 2024), research on how managers perceive their own roles remains limited. This study addresses that gap by examining managerial attitudes toward telework, offering a more comprehensive understanding of its implications across organizational levels.

For decades, teleworking was seen as the future of work, but since the Covid-19 pandemic, this future has become a reality. Since then, extensive research has explored its features, drivers, and effects across various sectors (see Athanasiadou and Theriou, 2021).

A key characteristic of telework is flexibility, as it enables employees to control when, where, and how they work (Coenen and Kok, 2014; Kossek et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2008), thereby enhancing autonomy and discretion in task management.

In addition, work flexibility is associated with several other outcomes of teleworking. Among the most cited benefits is improved work-life balance (Beauregard et al., 2019). Telework supports better integration of family obligations (Maruyama and Tietze, 2012), facilitates caregiving (Nakrošienė et al., 2019), and helps women remain in the workforce after childbirth (Chung and van der Horst, 2018).

Telework is also linked to higher productivity (Beauregard et al., 2019), due to fewer distractions (Waters, 2016). The option to telework itself may promote reciprocity and commitment (Labrado Antolin et al., 2024). Enhanced creativity (Tønnessen et al., 2021), improved organizational outcomes (Martínez-Sanchez et al., 2007), and reduced absenteeism (Beckel and Fisher, 2022) have also been observed.

Logistical benefits include time and energy savings from reduced commuting (Kurland and Bailey, 1999; Tremblay and Thomsin, 2012), while psychological gains such as relief from workplace pressures and increased well-being through autonomy and flexibility contribute to job satisfaction and retention (Vesala and Tuomivaara, 2015; Anderson et al., 2014; Noonan and Glass, 2012).

While these benefits are well established, less is known about how they are perceived by managers in specific fields, particularly in creative, fast-paced environments. This study addresses this gap with the following question:

Despite its advantages, telework introduces significant challenges. Reduced physical presence can weaken interpersonal bonds, as fewer informal interactions lead to more intentional, task-driven communication (Blanchard and Allen, 2023; Ficapal-Cusí et al., 2024; Viererbl et al., 2022). This shift may impair organizational culture (van der Lippe and Lippényi, 2019) and increase miscommunication or misunderstanding due to the lack of non-verbal cues (Diefenbach, 2023).

Social and professional isolation is a recurring concern. Telework can lead to loneliness, anxiety, and decreased job satisfaction (Shaholli et al., 2024), while limited access to informal networks may hinder career development and effectiveness (Golden and Eddleston, 2020). The absence of face-to-face contact undermines trust and impedes the transfer of tacit knowledge (Golden and Raghuram, 2010; Cooper and Kurland, 2002). Onboarding becomes more difficult, especially for early-career employees, who have fewer opportunities to learn from colleagues and mentors, and face more disappointments, resulting in early turnover (Charalampous et al., 2018; Myers et al., 2024).

Work-life boundaries may blur, leading to conflict between work and family domains (Eddleston and Mulki, 2017). Challenges also include lack of structured hours (Wöhrmann and Ebner, 2021), reduced team cohesion (van der Lippe and Lippényi, 2019), concentration difficulties (Vander Elst et al., 2017), and technostress (Wahl et al., 2024).

From a managerial perspective, remote oversight complicates performance monitoring and procedural adherence (Cunha et al., 2024). Managers who supervise teleworkers often report greater difficulty than those supervising on-site staff (Park and Cho, 2020; van der Lippe and Lippényi, 2019), while those teleworking themselves may experience heightened workload, role strain, and burnout (Kirchner et al., 2021; Omorede and Berglund, 2024). Organizational reluctance toward telework may stem from concerns over losing managerial control, as one of the only ways for managers to evaluate teleworkers is to focus on their accountability for outcomes (Groen et al., 2018). Given these complexities, this study asks:

Telework should not be treated as a uniform practice, nor should teleworkers be considered a homogeneous group (Haddon and Brynin, 2005). Outcomes vary depending on job characteristics, frequency of telework, ergonomic support, and organizational context (Beckel and Fisher, 2022). These experiences are embedded in specific work practices (Boell et al., 2016), underlining the importance of contextual research across different industries (Athanasiadou and Theriou, 2021).

In marketing communication agencies, creativity is a central organizational asset. It enables firms to adapt to customer needs, technological shifts, and competitive pressures, resulting in better outcomes (Kumar, 2018; Das et al., 2023). Amabile’s componential theory of creativity (2012) emphasizes the influence of the social environment on creativity, suggesting that changes to the work environment, such as the shift to telework, can significantly affect creative performance.

Creative professionals often seek varied environments to fuel inspiration and gain diverse experiences (Cho et al., 2016). They gain inspiration through mobility by understanding shifts in consumer preferences and technological advancement. Research shows that knowledge and creative workers are well suited to telework (Merisalo et al., 2013). However, challenges remain, as telework may hinder collaboration and innovation, which are core demands in creative sectors (Farcane et al., 2022).

Findings on telework’s impact on creativity are mixed. Pyöriä (2011) emphasized that telework is essential for creative problem-solving. However, as emotional closeness fosters digital collaboration (Wu et al., 2016), the reduced interaction in telework may hinder collaboration and knowledge sharing. Scholars also disagree on the role of communication in creativity while teleworking. Some suggest teleworking helps manage distractions and reduce interpersonal strain (Merisalo et al., 2013), while others highlight interpersonal communication among colleagues as a key driver of individual creativity (Manssour, 2004).

Given these complexities, it is essential to understand how telework interacts with the specific demands, values, and practices of creative work. This study addresses that need by asking:

The research questions were addressed through analysis of interview data from 18 individuals in marketing and communications agencies between March and April 2024. The participant agencies were selected through a random sampling process from a comprehensive list of marketing and communication agencies in Slovenia. A total of 20 agencies of varying sizes were initially contacted, and 16 of them agreed to participate in the study. The sample included marketing (9), and communication agencies (7).

Furthermore, participants had to be in a creative leadership role. The sample included 11 creative directors, 4 CEOs, and 3 project managers. The objective was to obtain a range of perspectives on creative and strategic decision-making processes within these agencies. Participants were selected to ensure diversity in terms of gender and age. Of the 18 participants, 7 were female and 11 were male, aged 30 to 59. The sample size was appropriate given the study’s moderately specific aim, targeted participant group, high-quality data, and thematic cross-case analysis, which provided sufficient information power (Malterud et al., 2016). In addition, the saturation of data was verified to ensure the sample size was sufficient, and no new themes emerged from the data in the final interview.

This study used semi-structured interviews to collect data. This method encourages comprehensive responses, rich insights, and specific examples, facilitating new ideas and more accurate conclusions (Rubin and Rubin, 2012). Furthermore, it allows participants to reveal sometimes conflicting attitudes on a subject (Marvasti, 2004). The framework comprised non-directive questions that permitted participants to determine the extent of their responses and express their authentic opinions (Lindlof and Taylor, 2011). The semi-structured guide was designed to explore participants’ experiences, perceptions, and attitudes regarding teleworking. It included open-ended questions organized around three main themes: (1) the advantages of teleworking, (2) the disadvantages of teleworking, and (3) the impact of teleworking on creativity.

The interviews explored the outcomes of teleworking for participants, their teams, and the agency. Before the interviews, participants signed a consent form, and pseudonyms are used throughout this paper to ensure confidentiality. Most interviews were in person, but 4 were online via Zoom. They lasted between 23 min to 1 h and 4 min, with an average length of 36 min.

The data were coded and analyzed according to Braun and Clarke (2006). We started by familiarizing ourselves with the data. This involved data collection and transcription, as well as preliminary observations. The 114-page transcript was checked against the audio files. The transcripts were imported into MAXQDA for analysis. Data underwent open coding to identify relevant segments. Codes were grouped into preliminary themes based on content. These were descriptive and closely related to the data. Themes were refined by identifying links between the codes, applying concepts, integrating previous literature and integrating all of this with the data.

Our sample showed a hybrid model (9) as the most common working arrangement, including office work and telework. Nonetheless, there is no consensus on which days employees are allowed to telework. A comparable number of agencies mandate full-time telework (3) or full-time office work (4). However, even in agencies where teleworking is not required, exceptions are made for long commutes, specific management roles, or particular tasks.

The findings show that autonomy and flexibility are key to teleworking. Adapting working hours and environments to personal needs enhances productivity, as participants highlight that teleworking allows them the freedom to choose where and when they work according to their preferences:

This also helps managers to recognize and adapt work to the specific needs of the employees. However, not all teleworking is flexible or autonomous. Some agencies implement specific rules to keep employees constantly connected. For example, one of the participant agencies allows for a 10% reduction in gross salary if the employee fails to respond three times within 15 min.

Greater flexibility was linked to a better work-life balance, particularly among those who felt teleworking allowed them to spend more time with their children:

Some participants had more time to complete non-work tasks but expressed doubts about effectively combining work and family life. A common concern was the »invasion« of work obligations into the family home, disrupting the boundary between work and personal spaces. This is reflected in the following statement:

Some participants emphasized that teleworking enabled them to travel more frequently or for longer periods, as they could complete work-related tasks from abroad:

Another perceived advantage of teleworking is higher productivity, especially for tasks that require calm and concentration. As managers are required to interact with their employees consistently, telework allows them to focus on specific tasks without interruption. This is illustrated by the following quote:

At the same time, they often mentioned temptations at home, which required higher levels of discipline to finish certain work tasks:

Teleworking also reduces commuting time, and this advantage is manifested in various ways. Firstly, managers can use the time gained from the absence of a commute for important work tasks or non-work activities. Secondly, the elimination of commuting enables agencies to recruit talented employees from more distant locations. These findings are exemplified by the following quotations:

Moreover, the daily commute for those in the creative industries includes any work-related trips. They often travel to meet clients, which affects their daily travel habits. Telework has significantly minimized these trips, as communication with clients has increasingly shifted to digital platforms, as shown in the following excerpt:

In addition, for some participants, the time saved by not commuting is accompanied by an increased perception of physical energy, which enables them to participate more actively in activities outside of work, as the following quote shows:

Besides this, telework also allows for a significant conservation of mental energy. Related to their creative leadership role, some of the participants expressed that the absence of the need to perform in front of others reduces the pressure to meet expectations, as highlighted by the next quote:

Most participants said that teleworking improved their job satisfaction and general well-being. This is due to factors like greater flexibility and an improved work-life balance. Additionally, telework appears to create a psychological distance from work-related pressures:

Although all participants recognized some benefits of teleworking, the majority felt that the (positive) outcomes depended heavily on individual characteristics such as discipline, sense of responsibility, personality type, and a high degree of introversion or extraversion – as the following comment shows:

Despite the benefits, participants identified several drawbacks. Teleworking blurs the boundaries between professional and personal lives, extending the workday. This is intensified by the absence of a physical and psychological transition from the workplace to home:

Many of the perceived disadvantages are related to relationships with employees. For example, most participants recognize that frequent or full-time teleworking could lead to social isolation, as the following quote shows:

Considering that most of the participants are hybrid teleworkers, social isolation does not seem to be a major problem for the participants. On the other hand, communication problems seem to be the most frequently mentioned disadvantages. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, it takes longer to solve problems or finalize projects when communicating in writing than when speaking face-to-face. The following observation underpins this:

Not all participants seemed to agree with this. The results show that technology acceptance and technostress could play an important role in the perception of the advantages or disadvantages of teleworking.

As indicated in the previous quote, communication misunderstandings seem to occur more frequently when teleworking, due to the lack of non-verbal cues. This is explained in more detail in the quote below:

Some participants said that less experienced employees prefer working in the office because they learn from colleagues and use company resources more effectively. From the managerial perspective, the socialization of new employees could be more difficult, and some participants specifically require full-time office work in these cases. In summary, teleworking makes it harder to share knowledge:

From a leadership perspective, giving feedback is more difficult. For example, some participants emphasized the importance of face-to-face interactions for delivering feedback, as it enables a more personalized and empathetic approach. This is exemplified by the following quote:

Furthermore, telework reduces opportunities for spontaneous social interactions and emotional support. In-person communication helps colleagues understand each other better, stimulates informal discourse, and enables more effective resolution of non-work-related matters. The lack of informal discourse may indicate a decline in organizational culture:

Additionally, teleworking hinders the “chemistry” between colleagues. When discussing how telework differs from face-to-face communication, some participants noted that non-verbal cues, such as olfactory stimuli, and “hormonal exchanges” are key to forming relationships and stimulating creativity. These processes are significantly compromised in a virtual work environment. The following quotations illustrate this point:

Moreover, half of the participants reported feelings of anxiety stemming from a perceived loss of control over their team’s activities. More specifically, the inability to directly observe employees led to anxiety about performance levels and the potential misuse of telework flexibility. One participant even monitored their employees' social media activity.

Furthermore, some participants find it challenging to assess team dynamics and individual well-being without face-to-face interaction. This is especially important as managers often find themselves in a position where they not only have to consider their mental health but are also responsible for checking on employees who telework. The lack of physical presence makes it harder to recognize emotional states and address interpersonal conflicts effectively:

Conversely, those participants who expressed high levels of trust in their subordinates did not experience anxiety about these issues.

Notably, the perceived disadvantages were significantly shaped by the experience during the pandemic.

The creative process is divided into several stages. One of the first stages is brainstorming for ideas, where team dynamics are crucial. Spontaneity and depth of creative discussions are best-facilitated face-to-face, where team members can freely share unfiltered thoughts and ideas. This is especially important as it fosters a level of intimacy and openness, which is crucial for high-quality creative work.

However, telework seems to be a welcome work arrangement in other stages of the creative process, as most participants would agree that solitude is a crucial part of the creative process. This is evidenced in the following quote:

Another drawback of telework is the lack of spontaneous creativity. Some participants noted the loss of chance encounters that spark ideas, such as those in the office or brief, unstructured conversations. These moments are hard to recreate in a remote setting, as illustrated in the following quote:

Nevertheless, not all participants seemed to agree that the office is an environment for spontaneous creative moments. Some of them felt that the change of environment is crucial for their creative output as it can lead to ideas that would not emerge in a traditional office environment, as the following quote shows:

Modifying the work environment does not necessarily entail teleworking. Many participants, including those who do not telework, support occasional changes to the work environment. One agency provides a backyard space for employees, while another permits them to complete tasks at alternative locations.

This study examined how creative directors and senior managers in marketing and communication agencies perceive the outcomes of telework. Participants highlighted a broad range of benefits, including increased flexibility, autonomy, improved work-life balance, enhanced productivity, reduced commuting time, greater job satisfaction, and improved well-being. These findings align with prior research (Nakrošienė et al., 2019; Maruyama et al., 2009; Chen and Fulmer, 2018; Anderson et al., 2014). Many also reported experiencing higher physical and mental energy levels, enabling fuller engagement in non-work activities. While Kurland and Bailey (1999) emphasized improved physical energy, participants in this study pointed to preserved psychological energy, attributed to reduced performative demands in digital client interactions. Notably, positive effects were perceived as highly dependent on individual traits, aligning with Beckel and Fisher (2022).

Despite these benefits, participants identified a series of challenges: work-family conflict, social isolation, communication barriers, impaired knowledge sharing, fewer spontaneous interactions, and increased anxiety. These results are in line with previous work (Wöhrmann and Ebner, 2021; Diefenbach, 2023; Charalampous et al., 2018; Shaholli et al., 2024). A unique concern, not extensively addressed in existing literature, was the loss of “chemistry” in collaboration, particularly relevant to creative and client-facing roles.

Conflicting perceptions of telework were closely tied to participants’ dual identities as both employees and managers. As employees, they appreciated autonomy, flexible hours, varied work environments, and greater energy levels. However, as managers, they faced difficulties delivering feedback remotely, delays in task completion, and anxiety about reduced oversight. This is consistent with earlier findings by Park and Cho (2020), Cunha et al. (2024), and van der Lippe and Lippényi (2019). Some participants also emphasized leadership’s emotional and relational demands, particularly the challenge of supporting team members’ well-being in remote settings, which remains underexplored in current research.

The study further suggests a potential mismatch between managerial concerns and employee experiences. While employees valued flexibility as a productivity driver (Beauregard et al., 2019), some managers remained anchored to models of structured oversight and physical presence (Groen et al., 2018). Concerns about accountability and control often reflected managerial anxieties that may not align with employees’ perceptions of increased autonomy and self-management.

Participants also reflected on the impact of telework on creativity. While previous studies have examined general links between telework and creativity (Wu et al., 2016; Pyöriä, 2011), this study highlights domain-specific nuances. Respondents described creativity as a multi-stage process benefiting from both collaboration and solitude. In-person interaction was seen as essential for spontaneous brainstorming and idea generation, while telework enabled deeper focus during later stages of creative development. Many missed the unplanned, impromptu exchanges typical for an office environment, which are critical for spontaneous creativity. Yet, some noted that changing physical surroundings, such as working outdoors or in different locations, helped generate new ideas. These insights support Amabile’s (2012) componential theory of creativity, which emphasizes the role of the work environment in fostering creative output.

Several findings reflect dynamics specific to marketing and communication. Digital client interactions reduced commuting and performative pressure, but also impaired nonverbal communication and weakened interpersonal rapport. The absence of nonverbal cues and “chemistry” in virtual settings was seen as potentially detrimental to client relationships. While the focus was on marketing and communication, the findings may extend to other creativity-driven sectors such as media, design, or consulting, where similar tensions between telework’s benefits and limitations significantly affect interpersonal dynamics and creative outcomes.

These insights offer actionable implications for both organizations and society. For organizations, hybrid models should move beyond arbitrary scheduling to strategically balance remote autonomy with opportunities for in-person collaboration. Trust-based performance systems could help mitigate managerial stress while supporting employee independence. At a societal level, telework may reduce environmental impacts through lower commuting demands, but could also exacerbate social isolation, especially among younger or early-career employees. Policymakers should therefore encourage initiatives that combine flexibility with opportunities for social connection, such as coworking hubs or virtual mentorship schemes.

Further research is warranted to explore how telework shapes client relationships and to identify contextual moderators like organizational culture, team composition, or technology acceptance. Comparative studies between employee and managerial perspectives could illuminate the structural tensions shaping telework experiences. The role of nonverbal communication in sustaining creativity, collaboration, and trust also remains an underexplored area of empirical inquiry.

This study has several limitations. It did not fully address variations stemming from agency size, regional context, or the structure of telework implementation (e.g. frequency, voluntariness). In addition, reliance on self-reported data introduces the potential for perceptual bias and limits generalizability. Future research could benefit from triangulating findings through mixed-method or observational approaches.

In conclusion, this study shows that creative directors and senior managers view telework as both beneficial, offering flexibility, better work-life balance, and well-being, and challenging, due to strained interpersonal relationships, communication issues, and oversight concerns. Their dual roles as employees and leaders create conflicting views, with personal gains often clashing with professional responsibilities. Telework also has a mixed impact on creativity, supporting focused tasks but limiting spontaneous collaboration. These challenges are shaped by role-based perspectives, individual traits, and the creative demands of the industry. Effectively addressing them requires organizations to move beyond structural fixes and consider the social and psychological aspects of telework.