Shaping the future of facility management. Market and literature insights on digital twin adoption Open Access

Defined as “a profession that encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality, comfort, safety and efficiency of the built environment by integrating people, place, process and technology” (IFMA, 2013), facility management (FM) emerged between the 1970s and 1980s. ISO 41013:2017 identifies that FM priorities are people well-being, productivity and satisfaction, organizations’ effectiveness and services’ efficiency (ISO International Standard, 2017). FM is driven by the need of managing spaces effectively through research, and consulting initiatives, focusing on personal development, automation and facilitating knowledge transfer among people (Waheed, 2010).

Within the Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Operation (AECO) industry, FM closes the gap between the building lifecycle’s design, construction and Operation and Maintenance (O&M) phases by focusing on optimizing building performance, maintaining assets and improving user satisfaction (IFMA, 2024). The evolution of FM practices has been modified over time. Back in the 1970s, it concentrated on unplanned and reactive maintenance with manual reporting and limited asset analysis during the lifecycle. Considered to poorly connect the different stages of AECO and reflected maintenance and cleaning activities for the built environment, FM practices brought high costs and inefficiency (Nazali Mohd Noor and Pitt, 2009). Since it is not only a cost-efficiency management practice but also a method to achieve multidimensional enhancement and competitiveness of organizations (Pitt and Hinks, 2001), there has been growing interest in integrating FM practices during design and construction phases. This approach ensures operational efficiency and attention to sustainability and energy management. In this way, FM brought value toward the management services, impacting on the built environment and its users (IWFM, 2023). The focus on services brings to classify FM into hard and soft (Campbell et al., 2024). Hard FM concentrates on the O&M of buildings, while soft FM refers to support services, such as waste disposal, security or cleaning. Enlarging its perspective within AECO, FM optimized several operations, including maintenance, energy and space management, to maximize space utilization and user satisfaction while integrating functionality and flexibility. In addition, the FM role started including strategies to reduce energy consumption, promote sustainability in buildings and plan preventive and corrective maintenance during building operations (Teicholz, 2001). FM translated into a unique opportunity for building management to support sustainable development in building management (Osei Assibey Antwi et al., 2024). FM offers a process to make structural, architectural and operational changes to reduce the negative impact of in-use buildings by concentrating on energy and water efficiency, ecological design and sustainable materials, user-centric perspective, indoor environmental quality, waste management, maintenance and cleaning effectiveness and others (Tucker, 2012). By incorporating sustainability practices and providing business services, FM supports the management while promoting inclusive, safe and resilient human settlements (Osei Assibey Antwi et al., 2024).

In addition to the transformation toward sustainable practices, FM is experiencing another transformation due to technological advancements and new needs of building users. With the advent of digital technologies, the sector shifts from reactive to proactive and predictive FM. This leverages advanced analytics and enhances the ability to monitor building performance by integrating Internet of Things (IoT) devices. FM contributes to smart and sustainable buildings by adopting several technologies that support automation in managing waste, energy, water and space occupancy (Osei Assibey Antwi et al., 2024). Among different technological tools, building information modeling (BIM) has the potential to innovate FM by supporting several operations with data analysis, including commissioning, space management, quality control, security and energy management and maintenance or repairs (Becerik-Gerber Burcin et al., 2012). However, the use of BIM for FM decision-making remains limited due to challenges in BIM execution, information management and interoperability (Dixit et al., 2019). Beyond BIM, other technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), IoT and cloud-based platforms, enhance FM operations. These sustainable requirements in buildings’ operation as well as the demand for more energy-efficient systems and the rising of industry standards ask buildings to integrate people, places and processes by adopting digital technologies (Ghansah, 2024). To achieve smart and sustainable buildings, digital twin (DT) has been addressed as the main digital technology to accelerate AECO digitalization. Even if the advent of digital transformation has the benefit of continuously improving FM process and positively affecting organization and people, it also brings to FM several challenges, including issues related to the integration of new technologies, data management and security and costs (Rosário da Silva et al., 2024). Notably, DT is increasingly recognized for addressing the limitations of BIM integration in FM and transforming how buildings and assets are managed throughout their lifecycle (Ghansah, 2024). By leveraging real-time data, simulations and predictive analytics, DT enables facility managers to optimize operations, enhance efficiency and reduce costs.

The incorporation of digital technologies into existing systems (i.e. in-use buildings) and the integration across different platforms can be complex and expensive. First, dealing with digitalization means also to consider an increase in data creation and collection. Managing large volumes of data and ensuring its security, especially with sensitive building and occupant information, can be challenging (Atta and Talamo, 2020). Again, data interoperability is a critical issue for FM. Facilities may depend on a combination of outdated systems and modern digital tools, which often lack compatibility (Lee and Lee, 2021). This fragmentation leads to a data bottleneck, where valuable information from different systems remains disconnected, hindering efficient decision-making. Moreover, proprietary platforms and a lack of standardization across the industry make it difficult to integrate different technologies. As facilities grow or adopt new solutions, ensuring seamless communication between systems becomes even more complex, highlighting the need for scalable and standardized solutions (Lovell et al., 2024). Second, cost is a crucial barrier as the initial investment for digital tools (both the software and the hardware) can be significant. Beyond the initial expense, there are ongoing costs for system upgrades, maintenance and customization to meet specific facility needs. These expenses can strain budgets, especially for organizations with limited financial resources, interfering with digital transformation prioritization. Third, another challenge is the need for skilled personnel. Advanced digital systems require to be managed by technical expertise, that is sometimes not present within the FM team. This skill gap often necessitates specific training, which can be costly and time-consuming (Sacks et al., 2020). Finally, organizations are not ready to the digital change and slow down the adoption of digital technologies and the advancements of digitalization that also require an enhancement in personnel skills (Tsaples et al., 2024).

Although the literature acknowledges the important potential benefits of adopting digital technologies, particularly DT, in FM operations, the industry faces several challenges. These include the absence of a systematic and comprehensive adoption model, difficulties in integrating real-time data, the complexity and uncertainty of data and challenges in visualizing real-time information (Ghansah, 2024). Most studies on DT implementation in FM rely on case studies (Bäcklund et al., 2024; Dawkins et al., 2018; Lu et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020), general literature reviews on digital technologies, especially BIM (Becerik-Gerber Burcin et al., 2012; Dixit et al., 2019; Lovell et al., 2024) or analyses of other phases of the building lifecycle (Adamenko et al., 2020; Alizadehsalehi and Yitmen, 2021; Banfi et al., 2022). However, their scope is often limited to a single building or organization, primarily aiming to demonstrate the effectiveness and challenges of digitalization.

Given this scenario, this study aims to explore the opportunities and challenges surrounding the adoption of DT in FM through a combination of literature review, questionnaire surveys and in-depth discussions with FM professionals. The insights gathered will contribute to the broader academic and industry discourse on FM digitalization, offering a comprehensive perspective on how to overcome existing challenges and unlock the potential benefits of DT adoption.

This study aims to explore the readiness of the AECO industry to embrace DT to optimize FM during building O&M. This will be reached through the following research objectives:

• identify opportunities and barriers by conducting a case study comparison;

• design and administer a questionnaire survey to FM operators in a defined market (i.e. the Italian market) based on the result of the case study comparison;

• discuss barriers and opportunities through interviews of key FM operators in a defined market (i.e. the Italian market) while reviewing the results of the survey; and

• determine the sources of barriers and opportunities of DT adoption in FM to examine future implementation of academic and market research.

The authors carried out a participatory action research (PAR) to understand the market perception of digital uptake in FM. PAR methodology is a collaborative research approach that involves researchers and participants working together to identify a problem, collect and analyze data and take action to create meaningful change (Walker, 1993). Unlike traditional research methods, where the researcher often remains an observer, PAR actively involves participants as co-researchers, empowering them to contribute to every stage of the process (Cornish et al., 2023).

In this study, PAR has been selected due to its cyclical approach, which captures rapid changes by gathering information from the ground (Staeheli and Mitchell, 2005). After identifying the adoption issue in the field of digital FM, the authors aim to explore opportunities and barriers by integrating not only the outcomes of academic research but also the market perspectives. Began in 2022 and structured in three phases (see Table 1), this study compares the findings and proposes the base for future research to foster the DT adoption in FM practices.

The iterative nature of PAR allows to build a research process base on successive steps, each consisting of “Participatory,” “Action” and “Research” phases. Table 1 describes the research process by identifying the objective, the approach, the process and the outcomes, divided into opportunities and barriers, of each phase. In addition, to identify the research process, Figure 1 describes the input, the processes and the outputs of each phase.

First, Phase 1 uses a comparison approach to compare literature and market case studies with the objective to identify the degree of DT implementation in buildings during O&M, while discussing opportunities for integration.

Second, Phase 2 structures a survey based on literature state-of-the-art presented in Phase 1. After having identified the background and the main audience (i.e. FM operators), this phase designs a questionnaire survey that assesses the adoption of technologies to digitalize FM processes and the implementation of DT to manage buildings (Boparai et al., 2018). All questions are in closed format, with multiple-choice or rating questions (five-point Likert scale). A total of 50 respondents started answering, however just 28 completed it. Although the survey was distributed to a potentially large pool, the responses collected were sufficient for an initial analysis of the phenomenon (Chen et al., 2022; Khosrowshahi and Arayici, 2012). Especially because the respondents are well-distributed across the relevant categories, it provides a representative perspective of the context.

Third, Phase 3 adopts an interview approach to discuss the outcomes of the survey (Phase 2) and assesses the digital transformation of FM processes in the referred market. Eleven FM professionals were interviewed remotely between September and November 2024.

The Italian market has been selected for two main reasons. Italy is defined as a moderate innovator of the European Innovation Scoreboard ^[1] and it is very close to the EU average. Thus, Italy represents a representative benchmark of the European FM market. Moreover, both the authors are working in the Italian market and are familiar with different operators.

DT is an increasingly recognized transformative technology in FM due to its ability to improve operational efficiency and provide decision-making capabilities. DT is defined as “a virtual replica of a physical object, process, or system that simulates its real-time performance, behavior, and interactions (Grieves and Vickers, 2016). It allows for continuous data exchange between the physical and digital versions to enable monitoring, analysis, and optimization.” Since virtual replicas of physical assets are generated, DT facilitates real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance and data-driven insights, which are crucial for optimizing facility operations (Errandonea et al., 2020). Through the application of IoT devices, DT helps facility managers monitor building systems such as HVAC and lighting in real-time, giving them immediate feedback on how they are performing and assisting in the early detection of possible failures. By adding the AI component, DT allows predictive maintenance, which lowers the possibility of unplanned malfunctions and minimizes downtime. This results in longer equipment lifespans and reduced maintenance costs (Tao et al., 2019). The application of sensors and data analytics bring data-driven insights, that enable facility managers to make informed decisions toward a better building performance. Therefore, operators can exploit DT to simulate various scenarios, such as energy consumption under different conditions or the impact of changing systems on building efficiency, to make decisions that optimize performance and reduce costs (Ghansah, 2024). Furthermore, energy use optimization is possible thanks to the continuous analysis of data from building systems and the consequent identification of inefficiencies. Energy savings, waste reduction and carbon footprint tracking are some of the sustainability goals supported by DT due to the integration of environmental data. As a result, lower utility bills and a better building’s sustainability profile occur (Khajavi et al., 2019). Finally, a great advantage offered by DT is lifecycle management. DT provides a record of maintenance history, performance data and repairs by tracking an asset’s lifespan from installation to end-of-life. This reduces unanticipated repair expenses and aids in upgrading and replacement planning. DT supports facility managers’ budget for future maintenance by combining historical maintenance data with real-time performance data, allowing them to more accurately estimate costs and allocate resources (Tao et al., 2020).

Although it has seen significant growth in the AECO industry in recent years, the adoption of DT in FM remains hindered by several challenges. First, DT system setup necessitates a large hardware and software investment. The initial cost associated with sensors, data integration systems, cloud infrastructure and employee training can be a major obstacle for many businesses (Oettl et al., 2023). Second, integrating many data sources from various building systems to develop a cohesive model for DT is challenging since these systems use incompatible data types. In addition, the seamless integration of many data streams into a coherent digital model may be hampered by the absence of global standards for data formats, communication protocols and system interfaces (Opoku et al., 2023). Third, considering the need of integrating many software platforms (e.g. BIM and IoT systems), the constant data collection and the precise mapping of physical assets, its implementation can be difficult. Moreover, to account for changes in the physical status of the building, a DT has to be updated on a regular basis. This calls for ongoing system maintenance, data collecting and monitoring, all of which can take a lot of time and resources (Elyasi et al., 2023). While the potential of DTs in FM is substantial, the industry must address these challenges to fully realize their benefits.

According to the state of the art on the implementation of DT in FM, “Phase 1” of this study conducts a comparison of three literature case studies and two market case studies to identify benefits, issues and gaps of this adoption (Pomè and Signorini, 2023). The literature case studies include IfM campus at the University of Cambridge, Here East campus at the University College of London and the hospital building in Shanghai (Dawkins et al., 2018; Lu et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020). The market case studies focus on innovative solutions within the italian AECO industry. The comparison between these two categories highlights a strong application of DT during the O&M phase of the building management. Especially, “Phase 1” makes evident that before implementing DT in in-use buildings, the purpose of the client must be well defined.

The three literature case studies highlight the primary advantage of DT, which can monitor not only the building’s structure but also its subsystems while integrating user behaviors. Its main objective is to enhance asset efficiency, focusing on environmental performance. To achieve continuous monitoring of indoor conditions and assess user comfort, IoT devices are installed in the real environment to collect and transmit building-related data to a building management system (BMS). Another key focus discussed by the literature is maintenance, as demonstrated in the West Cambridge campus and the Shanghai hospital. In these cases, DT is used to monitor the condition of the building and its components (such as heating, ventilation, air conditioning – HVAC equipment) to detect potential damages or anomalies and address them promptly. In addition, AI is used to analyze available data, predict system behavior and anticipate failures before they occur.

The two market case studies present different approaches to DT implementation. Ekore adopts a data-driven approach, viewing DT not as a 3D visualization tool but as a platform for collecting, managing and integrating data. Its method involves constructing a tailored technological framework for each building, starting with existing data sources (e.g. .xls files, bills, paper drawings, .dwg files, BIM models, BMS, etc.), establishing an IoT monitoring and control network and implementing an AI-based analysis tool. Over time, data collected from the real-world model enables the system to send automatic adjustment signals to the building, while a blockchain-based verification system ensures control over procedures and activities. Conversely, StrategicBIM begins by developing a 3D model to visualize data within a digital environment. After consulting with the client, it integrates IoT-generated data into the BIM model, creating a connected digital representation of the building.

A comparison of the five case studies (see Figure 2) confirms the potential of DT implementation in FM, particularly for optimizing O&M. DT serves as a complex monitoring and control system that requires the integration of multiple technologies, including digital modeling, IoT sensors, AI and machine learning (ML). However, two technologies have emerged as fundamental: digital models for data visualization and IoT sensors for data collection. In all case studies, the modeling phase is critical, forming the foundation upon which the DT is built. Creating a BIM model is essential for visualizing and navigating the building in 3D. Furthermore, IoT plays a significant role in DT development. Depending on project objectives, different types and numbers of sensors are deployed to monitor building performance and gather real-time data on its status. Despite variations in technological networks for integrating sensor data and transmitting control commands to building systems, all case studies collect the same core data types. In particular, the primary purpose of DT is to optimize energy and maintenance management, making humidity, temperature and indoor air quality the most frequently monitored parameters. Finally, only one case study, Ekore, considered the economic aspect of DT implementation. Due to the lack of comparable data, a broader discussion on the financial feasibility of DT adoption is not possible. However, this remains a crucial factor in assessing such digital technologies’ future development and scalability.

Several studies attempted to classify digital technologies adopted in FM (Bellintani et al., 2023; Brozovsky et al., 2024). Based on the classification of European Construction Sector Observatory (ECSO, 2021), digital technologies can be grouped into four clusters. Data acquisition technologies include IoT, human–machine interfaces and application programming interfaces (APIs). Digital information technologies include BIM, geographic information system (GIS) and virtual, augmented, mixed and extended reality. Data management technologies include management systems (such as BMS). Data analytics technologies include blockchain, AI, ML, chatbots and websites. In addition, there are DT and robotics (Signorini and Pomè, 2025). The impact of these technologies on FM processes has been discussed in the survey.

According to survey responses, the primary activities carried out in FM include maintenance management (reported by 82% of respondents), energy management and space management (32% of respondents, respectively). In contrast, only 9% indicated involvement in food service management and other services, such as security. When performing these activities, 45% of respondents use digital systems such as project management software, while 50% adopt digital and automated systems, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) software. However, the adoption of these systems does not necessarily correspond to the use of digital technologies. Among the digital technologies classified by Bellintani et al. (2023), the most commonly used are “Websites and Smartphone Apps” (rated 3.1/5), followed by Computer Edge and Cloud (rated 2.8/5) and Management Systems (rated 2.6/5). However, BIM, DT, AI and ML receive significantly lower ratings, averaging around 2.0/5.

When assessing which digital technologies offer the greatest opportunities for FM, Big Data Analytics, Data Science and Data Sharing and IoT emerge as the most promising, selected by 70% of respondents. These are followed by “BIM” (55%), and “AI, ML, and DT” (45%). Conversely, technologies such as 5G networks, Robotic Systems and Automation, Human–Machine Interfaces and Blockchain rank lowest in terms of their potential contribution to digital FM. This was further confirmed when respondents were asked to identify the three digital technologies expected to have the greatest impact on FM in the next five years. The top-ranked technologies were DT, BIM and IoT networks and sensors. These findings align with existing research, reinforcing the perception of DT as a key driver of innovation in FM practices.

The survey confirmed findings from existing literature, reinforcing the notion that digital technologies enhance FM service performance by (i) improving identification, visualization and diagnosis of problems; (ii) introducing interoperability, flexibility and user-friendliness for FM operators; and (iii) encouraging collaboration and flow of information optimization among departments (Hosamo et al., 2022; Meschini et al., 2023; Naji et al., 2024; Siccardi and Villa, 2023). Respondents believe that, over the next five years, digital technologies will primarily impact building energy efficiency, decision-making processes, maintenance and overall FM productivity (see Figure 3). However, several challenges continue to hinder the digital transformation process. The high cost of technological investments emerged as the most significant barrier (rated 4.4/5), followed by the lack of effective data processing methodologies (rated 4.0/5) (see Figure 3).

Survey respondents confirmed that DT presents a significant opportunity for integrating various FM processes and optimizing operations management (rated 4.2/5), aligning with findings from existing literature (Hosamo et al., 2022; Meschini et al., 2023; Naji et al., 2024; Siccardi and Villa, 2023). However, its widespread implementation over the next five years is expected to be limited by several challenges (Figure 4). The high costs and the need for workforce training were ranked as the most significant barriers (both rated 4.4), followed by concerns regarding the management costs of DT control software. Surprisingly, data auditing received a lower rating (rated 3.2/5), suggesting that FM operators are generally open to adopting digital practices. Despite this interest, only 13% of respondents reported having implemented DT in their FM practices, highlighting a gap between recognition of its potential and actual adoption.

Even if the interviewed FM operators exhibited a strong understanding of digital technologies applicable to FM processes, they are not familiar with DT (especially, INT-4, INT-7A and INT-7B). “Over the past 10 years, the approach to FM has shifted significantly from the traditional model. This shift has emerged as a clear perspective and has begun to translate into operations, particularly in the realm of sustainability” (INT-3). All the examples reported to describe FM digitalization represented pilots or starting tests.

Among other technologies, DT is recognized as a big opportunity and it is usually developed in the Italian market “when the tenant is also the owner” (INT-5A, INT-3). Confirming the results of “Phase 2,” its development is still very limited in this market, and it is not expected to advance significantly in the next five years (INT-2) because its implementation is expensive (INT-6).

Interviewees identified four clusters of impacts: operational efficiency, stakeholder, implementation and sustainability (Figure 5). While acknowledging the potential benefits of digitalization in improving operational efficiency, all expressed concerns about the overall complexity of adopting digital technologies. They emphasized that FM digitalization requires a clear driving force, particularly one that is evident to investors. Currently, FM sustainable development is recognized as the primary driver of digital transformation (INT-3).

Interviewed FM operators recognized that digital technologies support optimizing user satisfaction, (INT-7A, INT-8B) while increasing positive feedback from clients (INT-2). These solutions maximize user comfort by reducing errors (INT-1, INT-7), make processes more efficient and productive (INT-4, INT-5A), and introduce predictions into operations (INT-8A, INT-8B) while reducing errors thanks to automatization (INT-4). By confirming “Phase 2” outcomes, “technologies can support us in analyzing data and making decisions” (INT-4). While some technologies, such as IoT and Big Data, allow to conduct targeted research (INT-5A, INT-8A), DT is an umbrella technology that contains all these tools. It has a “scalable approach,” adapting to different needs it can support in energy efficiency or in sustainability (INT-3). Finally, digital technologies allow optimizing energy efficiency (INT-3) and deal with “significant pollution” (INT-7B).

Conversely, adopting digital technologies requires a significant time investment, as some users may be older and not digitally proficient (INT-4). In addition, implementation demands substantial financial investment (INT-3, INT-5A, INT-7A, INT-7B). For example, building management through BMS represents a considerable expense, and the more data a company seeks to collect, the higher the financial investment required (INT-6). Training specialized professionals further adds to the cost (INT-5A). Another key concern is user privacy, given the volume of data used (INT-5A), even if it is not sensitive (INT-6). According to INT-7A, privacy is not perceived as a major barrier to digitalization, as Italy (and EU generally) has strong regulatory frameworks in place to ensure data protection. Ultimately, the greatest challenge remains the lack of mature data processing methods (INT-2, INT-5A), which continues to hinder the full potential of digital transformation in FM.

By adopting a PAR methodology, this study holds relevance both to the academic field and to the FM practice. The findings highlight the transformative potential of DT in FM, offering significant advantages in operational efficiency, predictive maintenance, energy optimization and lifecycle management. However, its adoption remains limited due to high implementation costs, integration challenges and the need for specialized workforce. The comparative analysis of case studies underscores the critical role of data-driven decision-making and the necessity of a well-defined client purpose before DT implementation. While emerging digital technologies (such as IoT, AI and Big Data) are increasingly recognized as key enablers of FM digitalization, challenges persist, particularly regarding data processing maturity and interoperability. Survey responses reaffirm the growing interest in DT but also reveal a gap between its perceived potential and actual adoption. Moving forward, overcoming these barriers will require industry-wide efforts in standardization, cost reduction and workforce upskilling. According to FM operators, as the sector continues to evolve, strategic investment in digitalization will be essential for unlocking DT’s full potential and driving long-term sustainability.

The results of this study are based on a limited sample size (28 survey respondents and 11 interviewees) from a single market. Expanding the data set to include additional markets would be beneficial in validating the challenges hindering DT implementation in FM. This will serve as the foundation for future research development. However, by aligning with existing literature, these outcomes provide valuable insights for the AECO industry. This will foster a fully digital FM approach, that not only recognizes the DT opportunities but is also prepared to embrace the transformative changes brought by digital technologies.