Athletes are more likely to experience eating and exercise disorders than non-athletes. Little is known about the incidence of eating and exercise disorders amongst non-elite participants, many of whom participate outside of club governance and support structures. The aim of this paper is to explore eating and exercise attitudes and behaviours amongst participants in both formal and informal sport and, in so doing, generate insights to inform future educational initiatives that seek to promote healthy and active lifestyles.
An online survey was completed by 110 participants, 9 of whom were interviewed for the second phase of the study. Questions related to sport participation, eating choices, attitudes, feelings and behaviours regarding eating and exercise and probed issues of self (dis)satisfaction with their lives and appearance.
Although 69% of participants consider themselves to be healthy and 62% consider themselves fit, only a minority (26%) were satisfied with their body weight and body shape. Furthermore, most participants (67%) reported feeling some level of anxiety or distress if they did not have access to food that they consider to be healthy, and 88% reported feeling some guilt after eating food they consider to be unhealthy.
With literature relating to eating and exercise attitudes and behaviours having focussed mainly on formal sport participation and patterns of participation changing, studies that direct attention to informal sport participation are needed. Results indicate the need for educational initiatives to promote healthy engagement with exercise and food amongst everyday athletes.
Introduction
This paper recognises the critical role of education in developing sport participants’, coaches’ and teachers’ knowledge and understanding of healthy lifestyles and specifically, healthy eating and exercise habits. Importantly, it also acknowledges that patterns of participation in sport in Australia and internationally continue to evolve, with club-based sport only one avenue for participation. Research has evidenced growth in informal sport participation, which is undertaken outside of traditional sport structures, typically self-initiated by individuals and groups of participants with shared values and interests, and offers important flexibility for people to engage on their terms (Australian Sports Commission, 2024; Cameron et al., 2022; Eime et al., 2019; Jeanes et al., 2019, 2022, 2024). Definitions of informal sport vary, which reflects increasing recognition that there are many forms of “organisation” or facilitation of sport participation opportunities, such that differing degrees of (in)formality may be evident (O’Connor et al., 2025). For clarity, our research followed Jeanes et al. (2019, 2022, 2024) in distinguishing informal sport as participation occurring outside of formal club or sport association structures and governance. In recruiting both formal and informal sport participants, our research recognised that changing patterns of sport participation call for new evidence bases that can inform health education that seeks to impact everyday sport participants’ knowledge and understandings of healthy lifestyles. This paper therefore highlights that looking beyond a focus on formal sport and/or elite athletes, and adopting broad definitions of sport and participation, is crucial in considering future health education that can prospectively counter the risks of everyday athletes developing (un)healthy relations with exercise, food and their bodies.
Underpinning this work is a long history of research interest in exercise and eating behaviours amongst sportspeople and particularly, elite athletes, which has repeatedly pointed to the importance of education for athletes, coaches, teachers and parents. On one hand, nutrition is recognised as a central facet of athletes’ training for performance. At the same time, athletes have been identified as a population who can develop unhealthy relations with food (Berengüí et al., 2023; Fatt et al., 2024; Lichtenstein et al., 2022; Vardardottir et al., 2023). Orthorexia (from Greek “orthos” - straight, correct, right, and from Latin “orexis” - appetite, hunger) is often described as starting innocently with a desire, for instance, to improve one’s diet and/or eating habits or general health (Bratman and Knight, 2000). Orthorexia nervosa (ON) leads to a fixation on righteous eating, as people experiencing ON become anxious if they do not have access to their specific healthy foods – leading them to feel out of control. ON differs from anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders in the way that people who experience it are worried about the quality of the food, rather than on its quantity (Kummer et al., 2008). The motivation for someone with ON is to be healthy, pure and natural, rather than losing weight. ON is not about dieting for body shaping or body image, but only for the sake of body cleansing. Although ON is yet to be formally recognised as a medical diagnosis, increasing numbers of people are reported as presenting with its symptoms (Galfano et al., 2022). The relationship between orthorexia and sport remains understudied, particularly amongst non-elite athletes, and there is a need for more research, using a social perspective of health that examines the role of sports and exercise in relation to orthorexia (Håman et al., 2015).
Orthorexia Athletica (OA) is a condition characterised by the compulsive use and abuse of healthy food, and obsessive exercise, as athletes in essence, cross the line from a healthy approach to their eating and training, to an unhealthy obsession with both food and exercise. The simultaneous concerns with both quality of food and compulsive exercise are what distinguishes OA from ON where the concern is only with the quality of food. Athletes are regarded as a population group particularly at risk, with several sports and sporting cultures associated with regulated healthy eating regimes, high levels of training and/or a “slim to win” orientation (McMahon and Dinan-Thompson, 2008).
As emerging conditions, ON and OA inspired the overall project that this paper relates to. Little is known about eating and exercise attitudes and behaviours, and/or disorders amongst a wide variety of athletes (Papathomas and Lavallee, 2010), particularly amongst non-elite and informal sport participants, with most of the literature having focussed on elite athletes (e.g. Fatt et al., 2024; Teixidor-Batlle et al., 2021), formal sport participation (e.g. Borowiec et al., 2023), and/or specific sports that have an overt focus on leanness and low body weight (e.g. Berengüí et al., 2023; Chapa et al., 2022). This project was thus designed to expand knowledge pertinent to the attitudes, behaviours and self-perceptions of formal and informal sport participants that may increase their risk of eating and exercise disorders and offer important insights and direction for health education strategies that can prospectively have broad reach and impact. This paper is a pilot study which sought to explore eating and exercise attitudes and behaviours amongst both formal and informal sport participants, to generate a baseline for further investigation and to allow broad insights to be generated. The paper presents an evidence-based foundation for targeted educational initiatives that focus on increasing awareness and understanding of eating and exercise disorders and minimising the incidence and the risks associated with these conditions for a broad spectrum of participants, engaging in many forms of sport and physical activity.
Mapping eating and exercise attitudes and behaviours in sport
Past research has shown that athletes are more likely to experience eating and exercise disorders than non-athletes, particularly in the case of athletes who participate in sports that overtly focus on leanness and low body weight, such as long-distance running, ice-skating and triathlon (Papathomas and Lavallee, 2010; Rousselet et al., 2017; Smolak et al., 2000). It is also notable that while historically eating and exercise disorders were most common amongst female athletes, incidence has been shown as also increasing amongst male athletes (Atkinson, 2011; Karrer et al., 2020). Statistics show that men affected by eating disorders range from 10 to 25%, even though this is likely to be much higher, given that men are often underdiagnosed and undertreated (Spratt et al., 2022) and male elite athletes are reported to be more vulnerable to eating disorders than men in the general population (Karrer et al., 2020).
In some sports, specific risk factors have been identified for the development of eating disorders and disordered eating (de Oliveira Coelho et al., 2014; Bratland-Sanda and Sundgot-Borgen, 2013). This includes contextual factors in the sport setting that may act as triggers, such as weigh-ins, body measures, dieting, injuries, performance pressures, and a body-focused and disciplining culture (Papathomas, 2018; Stoyel et al., 2021). For example, Papathomas (2018) examined how institutionalised control over nutrition, exercise, and weight is rewarded in various sports cultures, and how these disciplining practices are cultivated as natural in some sports – including swimming, distance running and figure skating. Parallels between the logic of elite sport and the logic of eating disorders were also identified by Papathomas’ (2018) study, as both have unclear boundaries for what is normal in relation to food, weight, body and training. Yet, beyond the elite athlete population, we know little about participants’ understandings of these issues or their self-perceptions.
In regard to exercise disorders, athletes have also been found more at risk of developing exercise disorders than non-athletes. For example, Zeulner et al. (2016), using an exercise addiction inventory found that 2.7% of athletes in their study had the potential to develop an exercise addiction. Further research reveals that runners, in particular, are at very high risk for developing such an addiction (Lukács et al., 2019; Weinstein and Weinstein, 2014). Other research reveals that women who overexercise are more likely to do it to lose weight and to become thinner (Davis et al., 1993; Segura-García et al., 2010), which can lead to many negative consequences, such as amenorrhoea (Fenichel and Warren, 2007; Warren, 1999). Overexercise is defined as exercising to the extent where a person loses control and feels a compulsive need to continue the exercise behaviours even when it impairs their ability to function in various areas of their life and/or causes physical injury (Alcaraz-Ibáñez et al., 2020; Szabo et al., 2018).
This study was therefore designed to expand the reach of research relating to eating and exercise disorders and in so doing, also extend the evidence base for health education. The research question that guided this paper is: What are the prevalent beliefs and practices around eating and exercising amongst formal and informal sport participants? As indicated above, the study deliberately defined sport participation broadly, sought participants in formal and informal sport and in so doing, encompassed activities and forms of participation that may in some instances be distinguished from formal sport and labelled as “recreation”, “physical activity” or “exercise”. Exploration of the specific activities that participants were engaged in provided greater insight into the scope of participation represented in the study.
Methods
Participants and procedure
After receiving ethical approval from the authors’ institution, flyers with a Quick Response (QR) code linking to an online survey were distributed around various sport and physical activity sites (n = 43) within a metropolitan area of Australia. These included sport clubs, gyms, outdoor recreational/exercise areas, and university campuses. Links to this survey were also shared with personal contacts of the authors as well as on various social media sites targeting different sport and physical activity groups identified by the researchers. 110 respondents, aged over 18 years, provided informed consent to complete the survey. Further demographic details of the participants can be found in the results. Nine of those participants (2 self-identified as men and 7 as women) decided to participate in the study further and agreed to be interviewed.
Measures
The online survey was developed based on a consensus document of diagnostic criteria for ON (Donini et al., 2022). The questions included in the survey were organised into the following sections: (1) sport participation (main and secondary sports, frequency, length, level, sport and physical activity participation history); (2) self-perceptions of level of fitness and health, and food consumption/preparation (eating choices, eating attitudes/feelings, expectations regarding nutrition, and sport participation); (3) level of control and standards of different aspects of life (nutrition, sport participation, appearance, work, household and children’s activities/behaviour); (4) appearance and (5) body shape and weight satisfaction. Items were rated on 4- and 5-point Likert scales, for example in response to the question “How important is it to be physically fit and conditioned compared to other people?” respondents could select “(1) extremely important,” “(2) quite important,” “(3) somewhat important,” or “(4) not important”.
Survey data was analysed in Excel (Microsoft Office, 2024) with descriptive statistics in the form of frequencies and percentages calculated for the entire sample. Further analysis in the form of an independent samples t-test and chi-square analysis was then conducted to examine the results by gender (male or female) and mode of participation (formal club participant, or informal participant). It was deemed inappropriate to examine the results by type of sport, due to the large variety of sports that participants were involved in and accompanying large variation in number of participants associated with various sports. Valid percentages, relating to the number of responses for the specific question concerned, are used throughout.
Photo elicitation interviews were conducted with the nine respondents who decided to participate in the second phase of the study, which included the use of vignettes. The researchers gathered photographs of a variety of lifestyles, bodies, food and exercise choices from different media and were used as a means of interview elicitation (Thomson, 2008). The participants were invited to comment on the photographs and talk about issues related to health, wellbeing, food, exercise, fitness and lifestyle. Participants were also presented with a short story/scenario about exercise, food, and wellbeing, and asked questions about health, training and lifestyle. The use of vignettes allowed researchers to systematically explore sensitive issues, as it allows participants to control whether they disclose personal information or not (Crafter et al., 2015) and to discuss issues from a non-personal and therefore less threatening perspective (Hughes, 1998). Ethics approval was received from the authors’ institution (2023–04232-VAREA), and all participants’ names have been replaced with pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality.
Results
After providing a snapshot of the respondents’ demographic data, results are discussed in relation to the following categories: “Self-perceptions”, “Standards and expectations for exercisers” lives’, and “Attitudes relating to food”.
Demographics
Most of the respondents (71%) self-identified as female. No participants selected the “non-binary,” “prefer not to say” or “self-describe” options. The 50 plus age group was the largest, making up 35% of survey responses and most respondents (84%) self-identified as Caucasian/Australian. Education was the most cited profession (32%). As shown in Table 1, the survey succeeded in attracting responses from a high percentage of participants involved in informal (non-club) and non-elite sport. Many were also longstanding participants in their identified main sport, with 57% identifying engagement in their sport for 7 or more years.
Demographic details of respondents
| Item | Frequency | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Age | ||
| 18–24 | 18 | 17% |
| 25–29 | 6 | 6% |
| 30–39 | 19 | 18% |
| 40–49 | 27 | 25% |
| 50+ | 38 | 35% |
| Gender | ||
| Male | 31 | 29% |
| Female | 77 | 71% |
| Ethnicity | ||
| African | 3 | 3% |
| Asian | 2 | 2% |
| Caucasian/Australian | 91 | 84% |
| Indian | 1 | 1% |
| Other (Eurasian, European, Latin American) | 11 | 10% |
| Profession/Occupation | ||
| Business | 21 | 20% |
| Education | 35 | 32% |
| Health | 13 | 12% |
| Sport/Fitness | 16 | 15% |
| Other | 23 | 21% |
| Level of participation in main sport/physical activity | ||
| Non-club-based sport (individual and social groups) | 67 | 68% |
| Formal club participation | 32 | 32% |
| Frequency of participation in main sport/physical activity | ||
| 5 or more times per week | 35 | 35% |
| 2–4 times per week | 49 | 49% |
| Once a week | 12 | 12% |
| Less than once a week | 3 | 3% |
| Total hours per week spent in sport and physical activity | ||
| 1–5 h | 28 | 31% |
| 6–10 h | 52 | 57% |
| 11–15 h | 8 | 9% |
| 16–20 h | 3 | 3% |
| Length of participation in main sport | ||
| Less than a year | 7 | 7% |
| 1–2 years | 10 | 10% |
| 3–4 years | 19 | 19% |
| 5–6 years | 6 | 6% |
| 7 or more years | 57 | 57% |
Figure 1 (below) shows both the main and secondary sports/physical activities that respondents participated in, noting that participants could select more than one secondary sport. Participants could also identify other sports/physical activities that they participate in (either as a main or secondary sport) that were not on the list provided. Exercising at a gym was reported as the main sport for 25% of participants, followed by long-distance running (11%). The gym (16%) was also the option selected most as a secondary sport/physical activity, followed by swimming (12%). In total, 48 different sports/physical activities were identified/participated in.
The horizontal axis has markings labeled “A F L,” “Artistic gymnastics,” “Athletics,” “Badminton,” “Basketball,” “Boxing,” “Cricket,” “Cycling,” “Dance,” “Golf,” “Gym,” “Long-distance running,” “Netball,” “Other (please specify),” “Paddleboard,” “Rhythmic gymnastics,” “Rowing,” “Soccer,” “Surfing,” “Swimming,” “Tennis,” “Triathlon,” “Volleyball,” “Water polo,” and “Yoga” from left to right. The vertical axis has markings ranging from 0 to 30 in increments of 5 units. The graph shows bars for “Main” and “Secondary.” The data from the bars on the graph are as follows: A F L: Main: 2; Secondary: 1.5. Artistic gymnastics: Main: 1; Secondary: 0. Athletics: Main: 0; Secondary: 1.6. Badminton: Main: 0; Secondary: 0.58. Basketball: Main: 7.3; Secondary: 1.6. Boxing: Main: 0; Secondary: 2.2. Cricket: Main: 5.2; Secondary: 6.78. Cycling: Main: 5.1; Secondary: 1.6. Dance: Main: 0; Secondary: 0.58. Golf: Main: 0; Secondary: 3.4. Gym: Main: 26.9; Secondary: 16.4. Long-distance running: Main: 11.3; Secondary: 7.3. Netball: Main: 5.2; Secondary: 2.3. Other (please specify): Main: 17.5; Secondary: 13.7. Paddleboard: Main: 0; Secondary: 3.9. Rhythmic gymnastics: Main: 1.04; Secondary: 0. Rowing: Main: 0; Secondary: 0.58. Soccer: Main: 4.23; Secondary: 1.68. Surfing: Main: 0; Secondary: 1.68. Swimming: Main: 2.04; Secondary: 11.8. Tennis: Main: 0; Secondary: 3.3. Triathlon: Main: 4.1; Secondary: 3.4. Volleyball: Main: 2.1; Secondary: 2.7. Water polo: Main: 0; Secondary: 1.1 Yoga: Main: 4.05; Secondary: 8.52. Note: All numerical data values are approximated.Main and secondary sports/physical activities presented as a percentage of all responses. Source: figure created by authors
The horizontal axis has markings labeled “A F L,” “Artistic gymnastics,” “Athletics,” “Badminton,” “Basketball,” “Boxing,” “Cricket,” “Cycling,” “Dance,” “Golf,” “Gym,” “Long-distance running,” “Netball,” “Other (please specify),” “Paddleboard,” “Rhythmic gymnastics,” “Rowing,” “Soccer,” “Surfing,” “Swimming,” “Tennis,” “Triathlon,” “Volleyball,” “Water polo,” and “Yoga” from left to right. The vertical axis has markings ranging from 0 to 30 in increments of 5 units. The graph shows bars for “Main” and “Secondary.” The data from the bars on the graph are as follows: A F L: Main: 2; Secondary: 1.5. Artistic gymnastics: Main: 1; Secondary: 0. Athletics: Main: 0; Secondary: 1.6. Badminton: Main: 0; Secondary: 0.58. Basketball: Main: 7.3; Secondary: 1.6. Boxing: Main: 0; Secondary: 2.2. Cricket: Main: 5.2; Secondary: 6.78. Cycling: Main: 5.1; Secondary: 1.6. Dance: Main: 0; Secondary: 0.58. Golf: Main: 0; Secondary: 3.4. Gym: Main: 26.9; Secondary: 16.4. Long-distance running: Main: 11.3; Secondary: 7.3. Netball: Main: 5.2; Secondary: 2.3. Other (please specify): Main: 17.5; Secondary: 13.7. Paddleboard: Main: 0; Secondary: 3.9. Rhythmic gymnastics: Main: 1.04; Secondary: 0. Rowing: Main: 0; Secondary: 0.58. Soccer: Main: 4.23; Secondary: 1.68. Surfing: Main: 0; Secondary: 1.68. Swimming: Main: 2.04; Secondary: 11.8. Tennis: Main: 0; Secondary: 3.3. Triathlon: Main: 4.1; Secondary: 3.4. Volleyball: Main: 2.1; Secondary: 2.7. Water polo: Main: 0; Secondary: 1.1 Yoga: Main: 4.05; Secondary: 8.52. Note: All numerical data values are approximated.Main and secondary sports/physical activities presented as a percentage of all responses. Source: figure created by authors
The total number of hours per week that the respondents participated in physical activity (for both, their main and secondary sport/physical activity) ranged from 1 to 20 h. More than half of the respondents (58%) participated in their main sport/physical activity for more than 7 years and the majority (68%) participate in non-club-based (informal) sport.
Self-perceptions
69% of respondents considered themselves to be healthy or very healthy; 62% considered themselves to be fit or very fit; and 65% were either satisfied, somewhat satisfied, or extremely satisfied with their body weight and shape. These results are not surprising considering 80% of participants attached at least some level of importance to being physically fit and conditioned compared to other people and 65% of respondents considered it important that their body looks in excellent shape compared to other people.
There was no statistically significant gender or mode of participation differences with regards to self-perceptions of health. 54% of males and 55% of females considered themselves healthy, while 50% of formal participants and 57% of informal participants considered themselves healthy (Table 2). Similarly, there were no statistically significant gender or mode of participation differences with regards to satisfaction with their body weight and shape. 46% of male and 39% of female participants were “somewhat satisfied” with their body weight and shape, while 46% of formal participants, compared to 38% of informal participants were “somewhat satisfied” with their weight and shape.
Gender and further analysis on self-perceptions
| Gender analysis on self-perceptions | Female | Male | |
|---|---|---|---|
| How satisfied are you with your weight and body shape? | Extremely satisfied | 4 (5.97%) | 1 (3.84%) |
| Somewhat satisfied | 26 (38.80%) | 12 (46.15%) | |
| Satisfied | 13 (19.40%) | 5 (19.23%) | |
| Dissatisfied | 22 (32.83%) | 6 (23.07%) | |
| Extremely dissatisfied | 2 (2.98%) | 2 (7.69%) | |
| TOTAL | 67 | 26 | |
| How important is it to be physically fit and conditioned compared to other people? | Extremely important | 13 (19.40%) | 5 (19.23%) |
| Quite important | 21 (31.34%) | 11 (42.30%) | |
| Somewhat important | 17 (25.37%) | 7 (26.92%) | |
| Not important | 16 (23.88%) | 3 (11.53%) | |
| TOTAL | 67 | 26 | |
| Mode analysis on self-perceptions | Informal | Formal | |
|---|---|---|---|
| How satisfied are you with your weight and body shape? | Extremely satisfied | 3 (4.76%) | 2 (6.66%) |
| Somewhat satisfied | 24 (38.09%) | 14 (46.66%) | |
| Satisfied | 13 (20.63%) | 5 (16.66%) | |
| Dissatisfied | 20 (31.74%) | 8 (26.66%) | |
| Extremely dissatisfied | 3 (4.75%) | 1 (3.33%) | |
| TOTAL | 63 | 30 | |
| How important is it to be physically fit and conditioned compared to other people? | Extremely important | 12 (19.04%) | 6 (20.00%) |
| Quite important | 23 (36.05%) | 9 (30.00%) | |
| Somewhat important | 15 (23.80%) | 9 (30.00%) | |
| Not important | 13 (20.63%) | 6 (20.00%) | |
| Total | 63 | 30 | |
There was also no statistically significant gender or mode of participation differences with regards to the importance attached to being physically fit and conditioned compared to other people. 23.8% of females and 11.5% of males do not consider it important to be physically fit/conditioned compared to other people. 20.6% of informal participants and 20% of formal participants do not consider it important to be physically fit/conditioned compared to other people. There were, however, statistically significant gender t(95) = 2.198, p = 0.030 and mode of participation t(95) = −2.396, p = 0.018 differences observed with regards to how fit participants consider themselves to be. That is, men (M = 1.964) and formal sport participants (M = 1.968) were more likely to consider themselves to be “very fit”, whereas women (M = 2.391) and informal sport participants (M = 2.415) were more likely to consider themselves “fit”.
Interview data illustrated that despite their dedication to pursuing fitness and the importance they place on being fit and conditioned, many participants’ do not identify as being athletes, which shows the nuances and complexities about the self-identification of informal sport participants:
So, I’m not a professional [athlete], but I’ve got quite heavy into the health and fitness side of things … I train regularly – I’m pretty dedicated to training, but I wouldn’t consider myself elite … I just did one of those body scans, and it said that I was an athlete in my body composition (Oriana, 30–39 years of age, informal sport participant)
I’m not an elite athlete, but I suppose, I’m an athlete in some sort … I need to be active – I feel I need to be active a couple of times a day … Everyone wants to become a better athlete (Johanna, 50+ years of age, informal sport participant).
Regardless of gender (male = 46%, female = 59%) or mode of participation (formal = 50%, informal = 59%), most respondents selected “neither agree nor disagree” in response to the question “Do you think your body is pure and clean?” This was a particularly important question with regards to ON as individuals presenting with ON focus on body cleansing for the sake of being healthy, pure and natural (rather than being motivated by body shape or image). It is thought that those participants who answered this question with “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” may be at higher risk of ON. The analysis of data reveals that 12% of females and 27% of males either agreed or strongly agreed with this question. With regards to mode of participation, 13% of informal sport participants and 23% of formal sport participants either agreed or strongly agreed with the question.
Standards and expectations for exercisers’ lives
Respondents were also asked about their standards and expectations for themselves in relation to various aspects of their lives. Most respondents set high standards for themselves in relation to work (72%), their personal life (68%), and sport participation (52%). Formal sport participants (M = 1.413) were significantly more likely than informal sport participants (M = 1.841) to have high standards with regards to their sport participation t(90) = −2.471, p = 0.015. There were no statistically significant gender differences with regards to having high standards. Interviewed participants also commented on the expectations that they set for themselves:
I think that sums up some of my traits that I bring into – just always looking forward, focusing, determined. And yeah, I guess looking forward as well. I’m not great at it. I’m trying to get better at if I make mistakes, just to be like, “Right, what's next?” like move forwards, look forwards, don’t dwell on that mistake. Because yeah, I get quite perfectionistic, and I often focus on those mistakes rather than doing better next time (Emily, 30–39 years of age, formal sport participant)
Amidst these high expectations that they set for themselves, many respondents also reported the need to feel in control of certain aspects of their life. The results of analysis examining percentage of affirmative responses to questions examining participants' standards and expectations are shown in Table 3. Chi-square analysis on this data revealed no statistically significant gender or mode of participation differences between the observed and expected responses to the question “do you feel the need to be constantly in control?” for various aspects of the participants lives (see supplementary data in Table 4).
Percentage of affirmative responses to the questions: “Do you have high standards for yourself?” and “Do you feel the need to be in control?”
| High standards in relation to the following aspects | Work | Personal | Sport | Appearance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 68% | 60% | 60% | 36% |
| Female | 79% | 72% | 46% | 40% |
| Formality | ||||
| Formal club competition/league | 72% | 62% | 66% | 45% |
| Non-club-based sport (individual/social groups) | 78% | 71% | 43% | 37% |
| Need to be in control of the following aspects | Work | Nutrition | Sport | Appearance | Household | Children’s activities/behaviour |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||||||
| Male | 48% | 38% | 58% | 32% | 35% | 16% |
| Female | 52% | 46% | 40% | 33% | 45% | 25% |
| Formality | ||||||
| Formal club competition/league | 38% | 28% | 52% | 38% | 36% | 10% |
| Non-club-based sport (individual/social groups) | 56% | 52% | 42% | 31% | 46% | 28% |
Supplementary Data Tables. Chi-square analysis of the question “Do you feel the need to be constantly in control?” in relation to various aspects of life
| Yes | Maybe | No | N | X2 | df | p | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % | n | % | n | % | ||||||
| Nutrition | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 31 | 34 | 20 | 22 | 16 | 18 | 91 | 1.13 | 2 | 0.57 |
| Male | 9 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 5 | 5 | |||||
| Mode | Formal | 8 | 9 | 14 | 15 | 7 | 8 | 91 | 5.64 | 2 | 0.06 |
| Informal | 32 | 35 | 16 | 18 | 14 | 15 | |||||
| Sport | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 27 | 30 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 24 | 91 | 2.29 | 2 | 0.23 |
| Male | 14 | 15 | 6 | 7 | 4 | 4 | |||||
| Mode | Formal | 15 | 16 | 8 | 9 | 6 | 7 | 91 | 1.37 | 2 | 0.50 |
| Informal | 26 | 29 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | |||||
| Appearance | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 22 | 24 | 28 | 31 | 16 | 18 | 91 | 0.02 | 2 | 0.99 |
| Male | 8 | 9 | 11 | 12 | 6 | 7 | |||||
| Mode | Formal | 11 | 12 | 10 | 11 | 8 | 9 | 91 | 1.22 | 2 | 0.54 |
| Informal | 19 | 21 | 29 | 32 | 14 | 15 | |||||
| Work | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 34 | 37 | 20 | 22 | 12 | 13 | 91 | 0.09 | 2 | 0.95 |
| Male | 12 | 13 | 8 | 9 | 5 | 5 | |||||
| Mode | Formal | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 5 | 5 | 91 | 4.12 | 2 | 0.13 |
| Informal | 35 | 38 | 15 | 16 | 12 | 13 | |||||
| Household | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 30 | 34 | 24 | 27 | 12 | 13 | 89 | 0.79 | 2 | 0.67 |
| Male | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 5 | 6 | |||||
| Mode | Formal | 10 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 7 | 8 | 89 | 1.22 | 2 | 0.54 |
| Informal | 28 | 31 | 23 | 26 | 10 | 11 | |||||
| Children’s behaviour and activities | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 16 | 18 | 23 | 26 | 26 | 29 | 90 | 0.88 | 2 | 0.64 |
| Male | 4 | 4 | 9 | 10 | 12 | 13 | |||||
| Mode | Formal | 3 | 3 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 16 | 90 | 3.50 | 2 | 0.17 |
| Informal | 17 | 19 | 20 | 22 | 24 | 27 | |||||
Attitudes relating to food
51% of respondents found themselves thinking about healthy eating at least once per day, and 17% more than three times per day. Similarly, 49% of respondents think about the quality of the food they consume at least once daily with 37% considering the quality of food they consume for every meal. This could be seen to influence the time respondents spent preparing food with 45% spending 1–2 h per day preparing food and 3% spending 3–4 h per day on food preparation. Interviewed participants showed some level of flexibility regarding food consumption, and allowed themselves to occasionally indulge in food that they consider to be unhealthy:
I have no problem going out and having different things [foods] … My favourite meal if I’m out is fish and chips, or if I’m away a nice homemade ice cream when it’s beautiful weather … It doesn’t mean that we don’t have ice cream and pizza and yummy things, just in moderation (Sarah, 50+ years of age, informal sport participant)
I have certainly eaten meals like that in the past [a burger with chips] … it’s certainly not a regular occurrence for me. Not only does it look unhealthy with the cheese and the bacon and the fries, but also it does look like a lot of food … But there are days where I’ve not eaten enough or my cravings are going through the roof or I’m coping with a difficult workload and I’m just – throw caution to the wind and go for it (Leo, 25–29 years of age, informal sport participant)
Regardless of gender (male = 54%, female = 50%) or mode of participation (formal = 50%, informal = 52%), participants were similar in thinking about healthy eating “at least once per day.” Although female participants (41%) were more likely than male participants (30%) to think about the quality of the food they consume at every meal, both male (41%) and female (50%) participants spent 1–2 h per day planning and preparing their food. Given than 70% of the respondents were female and most food preparation is usually done by women, this result was expected, as anyone with a family to feed, even considering just breakfast and dinner, would easily spend this amount of time in food preparation each day.
60% of formal participants thought about the quality of the food they consume at least once a day. Whereas the results for the informal participants were more evenly split with 44% thinking about the quality of their food at least once a day and 45% thinking about the quality of their food at every meal. Interviewed participants also commented on the quality of food they consume and the preparation of meals:
Yeah, look, I’m all about eating healthy and we cook at home. Since I’ve had a family, we definitely cook at home most – well, every night pretty much, we might eat out once a week (Daniel, 40–49 years of age, informal sport participant)
I plan and prepare my meals … The planning and preparing the meals well and truly. I think that’s a good thing to do … Things [foods] don’t need to be pure and natural. (Sarah, 50+ years of age, informal sport participant)
Respondents had different perceptions regarding the food that they considered to be healthy. Foods considered to be healthy included: those with natural ingredients (34%), organic foods (18%), low calorie foods (14%), vegetarian (14%), and vegan (6%). Only 3% of respondents considered gluten free food to be healthy and 2% considered lactose free foods to be healthy. Other responses included unprocessed or minimally processed foods, low glycaemic index (GI) foods, and “those that make my body feel good/fuelled at that moment”.
67% of respondents reported feeling some level of anxiety or distress if they did not have access to food that they consider to be healthy and 88% of respondents reported feeling some guilt after eating food they consider to be unhealthy. Female participants (37%) were likely to say they felt “somewhat anxious or distressed” if they did not have access to food they considered to be healthy. In comparison, male participants (42%) were likely to say they “did not feel anxious or distressed at all.”
Formal participants’ responses were evenly split between “I do not feel anxious/distressed at all” (40%) and “I feel a little anxious/distressed” (40%), with only 20% of formal participants selecting “I feel somewhat anxious/distressed” if I don’t have access to food I consider to be healthy. In comparison, informal participants (38%) were likely to select “Somewhat anxious/distressed” in relation to not having access to foods they consider to be healthy [refer to Table 5 for full details].
Attitudes relating to food
| Attitudes relating to food | Female | Male | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Have you ever felt guilty after eating food that you consider to be unhealthy? | Not really | 6 (8.82%) | 6 (22.22%) |
| Sometimes | 25 (36.76%) | 9 (33.33%) | |
| Often | 11 (16.17%) | 6 (22.22%) | |
| Very often | 17 (25%) | 5 (18.51%) | |
| Always | 9 (13.23%) | 1 (3.70%) | |
| TOTAL | 68 | 27 | |
| How anxious/distressed do you feel if you do not have access to food you consider to be healthy? | I do not feel anxious/distressed at all | 20 (29.41%) | 11 (42.30%) |
| A little anxious/distressed | 20 (29.41%) | 9 (34.61%) | |
| Somewhat anxious/distressed | 25 (36.76%) | 5 (19.23%) | |
| Extremely anxious distressed | 3 (4.41%) | 1 (3.84%) | |
| TOTAL | 68 | 26 | |
| Attitudes relating to food | Informal | Formal | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Have you ever felt guilty after eating food that you consider to be unhealthy? | Not really | 6 (9.37%) | 6 (19.35%) |
| Sometimes | 28 (43.75%) | 6 (19.35%) | |
| Often | 9 (14.06%) | 8 (25.80%) | |
| Very often | 13 (20.31%) | 9 (29.03%) | |
| Always | 8 (12.5%) | 2 (6.45%) | |
| TOTAL | 64 | 31 | |
| How anxious/distressed do you feel if you do not have access to food you consider to be healthy? | I do not feel anxious/distressed at all | 19 (29.68%) | 12 (40.00%) |
| A little anxious/distressed | 17 (26.56%) | 12 (40.00%) | |
| Somewhat anxious/distressed | 24 (37.5%) | 6 (20.00%) | |
| Extremely anxious distressed | 4 (6.25%) | 0 | |
| TOTAL | 64 | 30 | |
When interpreting this data, it is important to note that we do not know whether survey respondents are referring to distress and guilt about not being able to access healthy food for certain individual meals (for example, if there is nothing healthy on the menu at a restaurant) or if they are referring to a longer period of time (such as while travelling for work or a holiday) or if it could be due to living in what is now referred to as a “food desert”- a place that has limited access to affordable, nutritious food. This is one of the limitations of the survey that needs to be addressed by further research.
Both male (33%) and female (37%) participants admitted to “sometimes” feeling guilty after eating foods they consider to be unhealthy. Differences were however observed in relation to the participants mode of participation. The largest number of responses from formal participants (29%) highlighted that they feel guilty “very often”; while the largest number of responses from informal participants (44%) highlighted that they only feel guilty “sometimes.”
Despite the respondents indicating a need to be fit and in excellent shape compared to other people and their concern regarding the quality of the food that they consume, most respondents (78%) were not bothered by other people consuming “unhealthy” food in their presence. This finding affirmed many participants’ strong focus on self, and personal standards/expectations of themselves.
Discussion
Exercise, eating and (dis)satisfaction amongst everyday athletes
Overall, the participants of this project were avid exercisers who participated in a wide variety of sports/physical activities. Exercising at a gym was reported as the main sport for participants, which confirms the shifting nature of sport participation towards more informal settings (Jeanes et al., 2019, 2022, 2024). Participants were also conscious about the quality of their food, and considered themselves to be fit and healthy. The majority of both male and female participants were “somewhat satisfied” with their body weight and shape, and participants engaging in formal sport settings were more satisfied compared to those participating informally. While most of the participants from our study who were dissatisfied with their body weight and shape were women, men were also amongst those dissatisfied with weight and shape. This aligns with a plethora of research which demonstrates body dissatisfaction, mainly amongst women (e.g. Grabe et al., 2008; Vall-Roqué et al., 2023). Furthermore, ON and OA are not yet formally recognised medical conditions and therefore the criteria for determining whether a person has, or is at risk of having, one of these conditions are not possible to be established.
Possible limitations
This paper has contributed with knowledge in the broad field of eating and exercise attitudes amongst sport participants. However, we are also aware of the possible limitations of the study. For example, it would have been more beneficial to include a larger and more diverse sample of participants. The sample of survey respondents is not representative of the Australian population from which it was taken. That is, the sample consisted mostly of Caucasian/Australian individuals and education was the most cited profession. This is because convenience sampling was used to recruit participants. Despite the authors’ best efforts to distribute flyers around a wide variety of sporting and physical activity settings in Western Australia and use a QR code for respondents to complete the survey at a time they find most convenient, most of the respondents had similar demographic background to the authors. This could be because the personal contacts of the researchers were more likely to complete a survey that was shared directly with them, compared to an individual who glances at a poster on a notice board. As such, the results of this research only apply to this sample and cannot be generalised to the broader Australian population. Further research to extend this research is therefore recommended.
Future directions
For many people, there is now unlimited access to an immense array of information regarding physical activity, nutrition, health and body weight. The influence of the fitness industry communicating messages and selling products is well-recognised, particularly with the influence of social media and influencers (Pinto and Yagnik, 2017; Schouten et al., 2021). For some people, this information may be a contributor in the development of unhealthy practices to achieve a body shape and weight similar to those of elite athletes. Our findings certainly raise questions about what constitutes a healthy body weight and shape for “everyday athletes”. Given that this study involved a high percentage of informal sport participants, the findings highlight the need for research that further examines the public health messaging that these athletes are encountering and are influenced by – including overt and indirect messaging evident at various venues and in online communications. Our findings also highlight a need for initiatives to educate regular exercisers about the differences between being healthy, active and being a professional athlete, and different approaches to what being healthy means (in a broad sense, and not just physically) and what constitutes healthy food and healthy eating. There are also calls to consider other non-dominant and non-Western approaches to health (e.g. Krusz et al., 2020; Pang et al., 2016). Developing athletes’ capacity to be able to critically analyse health resources and practices is also of utmost importance, and to move towards more salutogenic approaches to health. That is, health considered as a “continuum” rather than as an ultimate goal, and people are somehow healthy during different stages of their life (Eriksson, 2017; Quennerstedt and Öhman, 2014).
Conclusion
The aim of this paper was to explore eating and exercise attitudes and behaviours amongst exercisers in both formal and informal sport participation. The study presents an evidence-based foundation for targeted educational initiatives that focus on increasing awareness and understanding of eating and exercise disorders amongst participants and a wide range of stakeholders in formal and informal sport. This research highlights that it is by no means only elite athletes who have a need for education about healthy exercise and healthy eating. Furthermore, it affirms that changing patterns of sport participation call for expanded approaches to education, particularly for everyday athletes participating at the peripheries of, or outside of formal club structures and support. With diversification in how people engage in sport participation and how information about participation is communicated, there is a need for further research to explore how health education can be most effectively framed to minimise incidence and the risks associated with eating and exercise disorders for a broad spectrum of people.
