Occupant health and safety risk and opportunity in the delivery of building energy retrofits Open Access

The design, construction, operation and maintenance of building energy retrofits can have an effect on the air quality, energy usage and occupant health (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2022). Furthermore, the implementation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission reduction techniques has the potential to exacerbate pre-existing indoor environmental issues and compromise indoor air quality (IAQ) (UNEPA, 2024). Additionally, it can give rise to novel challenges when there are alterations in the frequency or intensity of unfavourable outdoor circumstances (UNEPA, 2024). In order to ensure the safety and well-being of individuals inside buildings and to create a healthy indoor environment, it is important to consider the health, well-being and safety of the inhabitants when considering building energy retrofits (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2017).

Deep building energy retrofits can be classified as an energy conservation measure in an existing building that significantly enhances the overall energy efficiency of the building. A deep energy retrofit, as defined by Less and Walker (2014), is a comprehensive assessment and enhancement procedure for a building that aims to reduce on-site energy consumption by 50% or more compared to the baseline energy usage (determined through utility bill analysis). This is achieved by utilizing existing technologies, materials and construction practices. Retrofit projects yield numerous benefits, both in terms of energy and non-energy, for the client (Less and Walker, 2014; Fawcett et al., 2014). Deep energy retrofit projects are guided by distinct phases, including pre-planning, project planning, construction and test out (Fawcett, 2013; Less and Walker, 2014). Retrofitting existing structures is more complex than developing a new sustainable building from the beginning, as stated in the documentation by Miller and Buys (2011). The incorporation of multiple disciplines complicates the delivery process (Godwin, 2011). On a global scale, the largest portion of the constructed environment is made up of existing buildings. It is crucial to begin implementing energy retrofits in order to decrease energy consumption and the expenses associated with heating, cooling and lighting.

The Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) in South Africa has emphasized the importance of retrofitting the existing buildings in the country, as mentioned in the study by Milford (2009) quoted in Okorafor et al. (2019). Nevertheless, upgrading existing structures serves a purpose beyond energy conservation; it can also be employed to establish a high-performance building (Paradis, 2012). Moreover, the practice of retrofitting is still in its early stages of development in South Africa (Okorafor et al., 2019). There are five clear indicators that demonstrate this issue. Firstly, there is no existing delivery system for retrofitting. Secondly, the official schedule of rates for any government agency does not include energy retrofits. Thirdly, there is a scarcity of contractors and skilled artisans who are knowledgeable in this field. Fourthly, professionals have limited knowledge of retrofitting options. Lastly, the available information on retrofitting is not adequate. Consequently, the implementation of retrofitting as a strategy for controlling carbon emissions is hindered by several challenges, making it inaccessible to the average individual (Milford, 2009; Okorafor, 2019).

While global interest in energy-efficient retrofitting continues to rise, there remains a critical gap in understanding the occupational health and safety (OH&S) concerns specific to the South African context. This study seeks to fill that gap by examining how retrofitting activities interact with ageing infrastructure, weak regulatory enforcement and region-specific environmental conditions. Unlike countries with established retrofit standards, South Africa contends with persistent exposure to hazardous materials, such as asbestos, lead-based paint, mercury and mould, often embedded in outdated buildings (Milne et al., 2013). These risks are further exacerbated by climatic factors such as high humidity and inadequate ventilation, which accelerate indoor moisture accumulation and increase associated health hazards. Consequently, this study seeks to elucidate the health and safety concerns of occupants in existing South African buildings during the energy retrofit process. By clarifying these interrelated risks, the study provides regionally grounded insights into the global discourse on retrofit safety and underscores the urgent need for policy reform and climate-adaptive retrofitting strategies within South African building practice.

The process of retrofitting for sustainability is perceived as an expensive and disruptive undertaking (Oppong and Masahudu, 2014; Ernest et al., 2016). Occupants of buildings display a strong dislike for both change and disruptive operations (Miller and Buys, 2011). Retrofit procedures commonly involve the addition of existing walls, opening walling components, removal and installation of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) components, and strengthening of frames (Wilkinson, 2012). Consequently, there are costly ramifications such as major development, displacement of residents and demolition. Owners of buildings are sometimes prevented from improving their structures because of the disturbances that occur throughout these operations (Cheung et al., 2000; Wilkinson, 2012), which inadvertently leads to a danger to OH&S. Building energy retrofit project designs should prioritize the mitigation or reduction of risks to workers and occupants, rather than relying on administrative processes, personal protective equipment (PPE), or other methods to prevent accidents.

Available research indicates that construction work is considered one of the most hazardous occupations globally, surpassing all other industries in terms of worker deaths (Department of Labour, 2022). As a result, the Department of Labour has categorized the construction industry as one of the most hazardous in the country. In order to mitigate the occurrence of accidents and diseases in the industry, representatives from the government, large corporations and organized labour have signed a Health and Safety (H&S) agreement, as reported by the Department of Labour in 2022. In addition, the South African government has made provision of an OH&S specifications document to assist in achieving compliance with the Occupational Health & Safety Act 85/1993 (OHS Act) and the now promulgated Construction Regulations (February 2014) to prevent or, as far as possible, reduce incidents and injuries (South African Reserve Bank, 2019). These specifications should serve as the foundation for developing the principal contractor’s and other contractors’ construction phase health and safety plans. Accurate data on occupational accidents and work-related diseases are essential for identifying root causes, recognizing new hazards and emerging risks, establishing priorities and ensuring effective preventive measures (ILO, 2023). Nonetheless, the collection of precise data continues to be a worldwide difficulty owing to the deficiencies in the recording and reporting systems present in several nations. To address this information gap, the International Labour Organization (ILO) has been producing estimates of fatal occupational injuries since 1998 and of work-related illnesses since 2001, using the most reliable data sources available (ILO, 2023). To substantiate this assertion, it should be noted that the construction sector has been classified as one of the most hazardous industries (Kamoli and Mahmud, 2022). Construction work has significant hazards and exhibits a substantial incidence of fatal accidents (Chan et al., 2016; Nnaji and Awolusi, 2021). According to the ILO, in 2018, the industry exhibits a much higher incidence of accidents and fatalities in relation to its workforce. According to Umeokafor et al. (2022), it is one of the highest in comparison to other industries. Based on the 2019 report from the US Bureau of Labour Statistics, the construction sector accounted for 14% of workplace fatalities and 7% of non-fatal injuries in the United States in 2018. The construction sector holds great significance as a major and dynamic economic force globally, providing employment opportunities for millions of people (Rostami et al., 2015). However, construction is a hazardous, labour-intensive, fragmented and constantly changing industry, despite its ability to provide income generation (Wang et al., 2019a, b).

Its dynamism and fragmentation gave rise to the subject of discussion. Building energy retrofitting process (BERP) is relatively a new trade in the global south (Okorafor, 2019), and as such there are many issues surrounding the retrofit trade. For example, Rickaby et al. (2014) and Barrett-Duckett et al. (2014) posit that ill-considered retrofits without understanding of the risks, poor knowledge of building physics and poor attention to detail can result in interstitial condensation. These risks should not be underestimated nor overlooked. Various authors such as Barrett-Duckett et al. (2014) and Bonfield (2016) claimed that poor retrofit leads to poor internal air quality, surface condensation and mould growth. This leads to serious health risks that are susceptible to respiratory illnesses (Rickaby et al., 2014; British Standards Institution, 2023). In the United Kingdom, the Code of Practice for managing energy retrofit in buildings (BSI, 2023) was extensively updated, and additional domestic retrofit guidance has been published by the Construction Products Association (Hansford, 2015; Rickaby et al., 2014) and the Institute for Sustainability (Rickaby et al., 2014; British Standards Institution, 2023), amongst others. In all this work, the importance of managing technical risks to buildings and serious health risks to occupants was emphasized. For example, in the United Kingdom, there were instances of retrofit failures following the launch of the Green Deal, a government initiative designed to increase the uptake of domestic retrofit by providing loans through commercial Green Deal Providers (Rickaby et al., 2014).

The Green Deal ultimately failed due to the de-professionalization of the domestic retrofit industry, as professionals were deemed too expensive (Rickaby et al., 2014; British Standards Institution, 2023). This argument was reinforced by Vince (2023), who asserted that professionals are better positioned to manage retrofit risks because they possess a deeper understanding of building physics and related factors. The authors further criticized the engagement of non-professionals who lacked formal training, had limited knowledge of building physics, and were poorly equipped to identify and manage retrofit risks (Vince, 2023; Hansford, 2015; Rickaby et al., 2014). An important lesson learned from this project is that rectifying poor retrofit work is time-consuming and costs several times more than executing the original work correctly (Wang et al., 2019a, b; Apps, 2022; Barrett-Duckett et al., 2014; Bonfield, 2016). Moreover, damage to occupants’ health resulting from inadequate retrofit practices is often difficult to remedy and, in some cases, fatal (Barrett-Duckett et al., 2014; Bonfield, 2016). Following the Grenfell disaster, construction professionals have demonstrated increased awareness of retrofit-related issues; however, qualitative evidence suggests that specific technical knowledge remains insufficient (Mohamed et al., 2019). To address this gap, changes in construction education and pedagogy, along with an expansion of facilities managers’ roles, have been proposed (Mohamed et al., 2019). It has also been argued that the poor professional culture within the retrofit industry significantly contributed to the negative outcomes associated with retrofit practices. These insights underscore the importance of the present study in the South African context.

This study employed a qualitative methodology, involving interviews with industry professionals. The interviews focused on the aspects of health, safety and occupant well-being in the implementation of building energy retrofit projects. The decision to use a qualitative technique was based on the fact that qualitative research methodologies enable thorough and extensive exploration and interrogation of interviewees' responses. Gray (2014) and Creswell (2013) have identified various forms of qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis and case study research.

This study employed in-depth interviews and case studies. The case study component focused on existing buildings undergoing deep energy retrofit projects, with an average age of 29 years and an average of 14 floors. To achieve the study’s objectives, research questions were developed based on a review of the literature, particularly Wang et al.’s (2019a, b) work on reducing energy consumption in buildings. A total of 12 case studies and eight interviews were selected based on the respondents’ willingness to participate, the potential richness of the data expected from the case studies and the point of data saturation achieved. According to Baker and Edwards (2012), qualitative research experts argue that there is no definitive answer to the question of how many participants are required, as sample size depends on several epistemological, methodological and practical factors. Vasileiou et al. (2018) recommend that qualitative samples be large enough to generate a “new and richly textured understanding” of the phenomenon under study, yet small enough to permit the “deep, case-oriented analysis” characteristic of qualitative research. They further contend that the more useable data collected from each participant, the fewer participants are needed—an observation reflected in the current study. These scholarly assertions substantiate the methodological choice of 12 case studies and eight interview participants. Moreover, Ogden and Cornwell (2010) and Levitt et al. (2017) emphasize that the degree of question structure in qualitative interviews influences the richness of data generated; this consideration informed the design of interview questions (IQs) in the present study.

Information from the interviews was collected from project documents and by obtaining further details from the project participant. The data collection activity serves as a confirming link between the literature review and the data collection in the form of the in-depth interview. The interviewees were building energy retrofit experts who were selected based on their profession, their willingness to participate in the study, their experience and their interest in improving the field of research. All participants were provided with an information guide about the study that indicates that responses will remain strictly confidential, and data will be analysed and presented anonymously. The interviews were descriptively and thematically analysed. The textual data presented in this study follows emergent patterns from the set IQs. These include:

• IQ1. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along

  with the remedies in upgrading lighting fixtures to save energy.

• IQ2. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along

  with the remedies for upgrading roof and ceiling insulation.

• IQ3. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along with the remedies for upgrading wall insulation.

• IQ4. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along with the remedies in modifying or repairing existing moisture barriers.

• IQ5. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along with the remedies in altering or cleaning fan coils and unit ventilators.

• IQ6. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along with the remedies in pipe modifications.

• IQ7. Describe the activities that will lead to OHS concerns, along with the remedies in HVAC controls to monitor/maintain IAQ (upgrades or modifications).

Data collection continued until reaching saturation, which is the stage at which data starts to repeat and become redundant, and no longer provides any novel or additional insights (Ritchie et al., 2014). According to Saunders et al. (2016), a sample size ranging from 4 to 12 participants is optimal for achieving data saturation in qualitative data gathering. The case studies are outlined in Table 1, while the interviewers' profiles are presented in Table 2. The respondents are skilled individuals who are accountable for the process of upgrading the building in this specific case study. The researchers gather the participants' opinions of the consequences of BERP on health and safety, as well as their recommendations for resolving these consequences. The interviewees' information was collected using a digital recording device, which was explicitly shown to them before the interview began, to ensure their explicit agreement to being recorded. The recording equipment enabled the researcher to focus entirely on the responses while also making notes during and after the recording. These notes were considered during the process of analysing the data. Every interview was transcribed and then subjected to a thematic analysis that focused on identifying and examining key views, relationships and distinctions related to the subject matter. A comprehensive review of literature was conducted to ensure a thorough grasp of the research subject and to gather viewpoints from the participants. This involved re-examining and evaluating the interview transcripts to verify that the focus on the subject matter was precisely recorded.

The main goal of the case study (case interview sessions) was to collect information about the real-life experiences of relevant stakeholders who have been involved with the specific BERPs, while also evaluating the effectiveness of the operational aspects that contribute to OHS issues. The interviews took place in the headquarters of both organizations that had executed the case project. Each interview session had a duration of around 60 min on average. The sessions were tape-recorded with the interviewees' consent and transcribed word-for-word for analysis.

Gathering information from a wide range of service providers is crucial for acquiring comprehensive knowledge on the subject of research. The interviews in the sample are drawn from a diverse range of organizations, backgrounds and levels of expertise. This ensured a wide range of perspectives on the topic issue. A purposive sample was utilized, consisting of 8 respondents who were interviewed. The participants possess an average of 12.3 years of experience in BERPs. The viewpoints were collected and consolidated for the purpose of facilitating presentation and analysis, as shown in Table 3. Figure 1 provides a summary of the OHS hazards and the associated control measures within the building system.

For ease of presentation, the discussion is done under each activity.

The respondents identified several OHS risks associated with lighting retrofits, including the presence of asbestos-containing materials, lead-based paints and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in older electrical ballasts. These materials, if disturbed during retrofitting, can pose significant health threats, particularly where retrofitting is poorly planned, an issue also noted in studies from the UK and USA (Rickaby et al., 2014; Barrett-Duckett et al., 2014). However, unlike those contexts, the South African built environment includes a significant number of ageing buildings constructed before the enforcement of modern safety regulations, increasing the likelihood of hazardous materials being present during retrofits. Respondents further highlighted risks from mercury vapour or mercury-containing powder released by broken fluorescent bulbs, especially when drum-top crushers are improperly used, an issue compounded by limited training and regulation enforcement in parts of South Africa’s construction sector (Bonfield, 2016).

These risks underscore the critical need for strict adherence to the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 and the Construction Regulations of 2014 (SARB, 2019). While international studies (e.g. Hodgson and Darton, 2000; National Cancer Institute, 2022; Tong and Gill, 2023) have established links between asbestos exposure and respiratory illnesses, including cancer, as well as mercury-related health issues, the South African situation presents unique challenges. These include inadequate record-keeping on hazardous materials in older buildings, gaps in contractor awareness and a lack of enforcement capacity, particularly in rural or informal sector projects. Respondents therefore emphasized the importance of carefully removing and replacing outdated fixtures with safer alternatives and ensuring proper disposal of mercury-containing lamps and PCB-laden components (Rickaby et al., 2014; British Standards Institution, 2023). Although the use of asbestos is now highly regulated in countries like the USA (Skammeritz et al., 2011), regulatory compliance and awareness remain inconsistent across many South African construction sites, which heightens the urgency for localized risk mitigation strategies.

In this particular activity, participants reported that ceiling retrofit activities often disturb hazardous substances such as asbestos-containing materials, lead-based paints, PCBs and mould, hazards also noted in international studies (Apps, 2022; Barrett-Duckett et al., 2014; Bonfield, 2016). In addition, the use of spray polyurethane foam (SPF) insulation was flagged as a potential IAQ concern, particularly where moisture becomes trapped behind insulation installed under low-pitch wooden roof decks. This creates ideal conditions for hidden mould growth and long-term structural damage. While these risks are documented globally, in South Africa, their impact is compounded by the use of substandard materials, unregulated installation practices and inadequate training among insulation contractors, particularly in township and rural construction projects.

Moreover, respondents noted that ceiling insulation products used in South Africa frequently contain synthetic mineral fibres (SMFs) such as glass wool or rock wool, which are known to irritate the skin, eyes and respiratory system. The potential for exposure increases during retrofitting activities where PPE use is inconsistent and regulatory oversight is limited. These concerns align with findings from Worksafe Queensland (2012), which identified hazardous substances, including SMFs, asbestos, pesticides and residual chemicals, as frequently present during roof and ceiling upgrades.

To mitigate these risks, respondents emphasized the need to select moisture-resistant insulation materials and to ensure proper installation, especially in climate zones prone to high humidity or temperature extremes, as seen in parts of KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo. Standard best practices recommended by respondents include sealing unintended openings in the building envelope to minimize moisture ingress and pest intrusion, measures that, although supported in international guidelines (BSI, 2023; Worksafe Queensland, 2012), are often inconsistently applied in South African projects due to skills shortages, limited funding and lack of client awareness.

The study further indicates that during retrofitting activities, hazardous materials such as asbestos, lead-based paint, PCBs and mould may be disturbed. Additionally, respondents noted that uncovered or poorly sealed dirt floors, which are still present in some older or informal South African buildings, contribute significantly to moisture migration into interior spaces. Installing carpets or floor tiles over concrete slabs with persistent condensation or pooling water was also identified as a trigger for mould proliferation. These issues are especially problematic in regions with high humidity or seasonal rainfall and align with earlier findings by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013) and Barrett-Duckett et al. (2014), who traced similar moisture-related problems to design flaws, construction errors, or inadequate HVAC system maintenance.

In the South African context, HVAC systems are often under-maintained or absent altogether in low- and middle-income housing, where passive ventilation or hybrid systems are used instead. This increases the risk of condensation, thermal bridging and poor IAQ. The Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB, 2023) similarly notes that HVAC upgrades, if poorly implemented, may contribute to thermal bridging, internal leaks and rising damp. These factors create conducive conditions for mould growth, which, as reported by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) (IOM, 2004), has been epidemiologically linked to upper respiratory symptoms and other adverse health outcomes. While these associations are well documented internationally, the persistent use of low-cost construction materials and limited awareness of HVAC moisture dynamics among local contractors make these risks particularly acute in South African retrofit projects.

The study reveals that incorrect condensate drainage in HVAC units with cooling coils can create environments conducive to the growth of mould, Legionella and other harmful bacteria. Additionally, poorly sealed or uninsulated ductwork, especially when routed through unconditioned spaces, was identified as a significant source of indoor condensation. These conditions increase the risk of respiratory illnesses, consistent with findings by IOM (2004) and Fisk et al. (2007), which linked such issues to upper respiratory tract symptoms among building occupants.

In the South African context, many buildings, particularly older commercial and public sector facilities, have ageing or poorly maintained HVAC systems. Respondents noted that improper installations and a lack of periodic inspection exacerbate health and energy efficiency risks. To address these challenges, participants emphasized the need to reduce airborne contaminants through better filtration and ventilation practices, maintain appropriate indoor humidity levels and use low VOC and formaldehyde-free materials. Furthermore, the installation of sealed, energy-efficient duct systems and properly balanced HVAC configurations was recommended to sustain indoor positive pressurization and minimize moisture ingress.

Supporting these views, Fisk et al. (2007) emphasized that failure to maintain fan coil units properly can lead to diminished energy performance, poor thermal efficiency and increased maintenance costs. Accumulation of dust, debris and microbial contaminants within units and ductwork, if left unaddressed, poses both functional and health risks. In South Africa, where building services maintenance is often reactive rather than preventive, these issues are particularly pressing, pointing to the need for targeted HVAC training and stricter facility management protocols.

According to the interviewees, pipe modification activities during retrofitting can result in improper venting of combustion gases, posing a significant risk of CO₂ exposure to building occupants. This concern aligns with United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2022), which emphasized that CO₂ systems must be designed with safeguards to prevent accidental discharge, particularly in energy efficiency upgrades. USEPA's study revealed that such exposures often stem from the absence of adequate safety procedures and fail-safe mechanisms during mechanical interventions (USEPA, 2022).

Respondents in this study also noted that moisture intrusion and the presence of undetected mould during pipe alterations could lead to microbiological contamination, consistent with findings by Fisk et al. (2007). These risks are especially pronounced in buildings with ageing plumbing infrastructure, inadequate ventilation, or poor-quality retrofitting work, factors commonly observed in South Africa’s public and low-cost housing sectors.

To mitigate these risks, participants recommended the installation and regular maintenance of CO₂ detection systems. Additionally, they emphasized the importance of ensuring proper installation of steam traps, combustion equipment and boilers to minimize the chance of gas leakage or incomplete combustion. These measures, while standard in more regulated environments, are often inconsistently implemented in South Africa due to limited technical oversight and resource constraints, underscoring the need for stronger compliance monitoring and skills development in mechanical system retrofits.

Participants reported that the removal of old mercury-containing thermostats during retrofitting poses a significant health risk. Mercury exposure, as confirmed by Morawska et al. (2013), has been shown to adversely affect the nervous and immune systems, while Tucaliuc and Cretescu (2014) also link it to damage of the respiratory system, kidneys, skin and eyes. These risks are heightened in South Africa, where legacy equipment is still commonly found in older residential and institutional buildings, and where mercury disposal protocols are inconsistently followed.

Additionally, respondents noted that building sensors, such as those used to monitor IAQ, temperature and humidity, often suffer from poor calibration and maintenance. This, they argued, can lead to undetected air quality problems, particularly in retrofitted environments where HVAC systems are upgraded without holistic system integration. Schweizer et al. (2007) and Semple et al. (2012) similarly observed that HVAC upgrades, if not properly managed, may become sources of indoor air pollutants.

Furthermore, poor humidity control during cooling operations was cited as a cause of mould growth and pest infestation, findings that align with the study by IOM (2004). Interviewees also emphasized that improper HVAC controls can result in unbalanced airflows and pressures, increasing the risk of intrusion by belowground contaminants such as radon, moisture, and other volatile substances. This is especially relevant in parts of South Africa where radon-prone soils intersect with under-ventilated or poorly sealed buildings. Yet, monitoring and mitigation strategies for such risks remain limited due to a lack of awareness and policy enforcement.

While many of the occupational health and environmental risks identified, such as asbestos, lead paint, PCBs, mercury exposure, mould growth and poor HVAC performance, are well documented in international literature, this study provides important contextual insights specific to South Africa’s built environment. The findings reveal that these hazards are exacerbated locally by outdated infrastructure, limited regulatory enforcement, low technical capacity and a significant prevalence of informal and under-maintained building systems. Furthermore, the study draws attention to underreported issues such as sensor miscalibration, poor condensate management and substandard ventilation practices, which, in combination with regional climatic conditions and material usage patterns, present heightened risks to occupant health and building performance. These insights highlight the urgent need for context-specific retrofit guidelines, improved awareness among practitioners and stricter implementation of health and safety regulations to ensure sustainable and safe building upgrades in South Africa.

This study set out to clarify the OH&S concerns associated with retrofitting existing buildings for energy efficiency in the South African context. The findings reveal that nearly every retrofit operation, whether upgrading lighting, insulation, HVAC systems or plumbing, carries potential OH&S risks. The main among these are exposure to hazardous legacy materials such as asbestos, lead-based paint, PCBs and mercury, as well as biological risks like moulds proliferation and chemical risks from volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These risks are further compounded by poor HVAC performance, sensor miscalibration and substandard ventilation practices, particularly in ageing buildings with limited regulatory oversight and under-maintained systems.

Crucially, the study identifies several top-priority risks that require immediate attention: (1) the disturbance of asbestos-containing materials during demolition or insulation work, (2) exposure to lead and PCBs in outdated fixtures, and (3) respiratory risks from mould and poor air quality due to malfunctioning or improperly balanced HVAC systems. These issues are intensified by South Africa’s context of limited technical capacity and informal construction practices.

In response, the study recommends a proactive, risk-based approach to retrofitting. Key mitigation measures include the safe removal and disposal of hazardous materials, improved condensate management, sealed and well-balanced HVAC systems, and the specification of low-VOC, formaldehyde-free products. Stakeholders should incorporate OH&S risk checklists into procurement contracts and ensure compliance through rigorous supervision and technical training.

Ultimately, integrating these recommendations into the retrofit process will not only safeguard occupant health but also reduce liability, prevent costly remediation and enhance the long-term cost-benefit outcomes of energy efficiency initiatives. By addressing OH&S risks upfront, retrofitting projects in South Africa can be both energy-efficient and health-conscious, aligning safety, performance and sustainability goals.