Framing climate change adaptation learning and action: the case of Lahore, Pakistan

Adaptation to climate change is increasingly becoming a management priority for government and private sector organisations across the globe, partly driven by a rationale that successful adaptation will reduce the consequences of climatic impacts that are unavoidable (Doria et al., 2009; Adger et al., 2005). As noted by Ayers and Huq (2008) as well as Oxfam (2007), organisational change which enables climate adaptation learning is considered crucial to a process of improving climate resilience in the developing world. However, grasping such an opportunity is a major challenge, particularly in the urban public sector in developing countries such as Pakistan.

Senge et al. (1999, p. 5) set out some general aspirations that drive organisational change:

Despite the presence of these aspirations, a large number of change initiatives (both in developed and developing countries) have had limited success due to a variety of institutional barriers (Stanleigh, 2008; Ndou, 2004; Polidano, 2001; Hamel, 2000; Senge et al., 1999; Handy, 1989). Although these barriers differ according to local context, two general themes can be distilled from such studies. First, there is often a failure to create enabling conditions that actively support and encourage change through organisational learning, and second a failure to implement an effectual change process. Under such a scenario, the applicability of a learning organisation concept appears to be the most appropriate in any change process.

The quintessence of the learning organisation paradigm is seemingly straightforward, and rotates around developing a positive tendency to learn, adapt and change. In the developed‐world context (Sette, 2008; Elkjaer, 2004; Nutley and Davies, 2001; Senge et al., 1999; Dodgson, 1993) there have been a large number of studies that have either made efforts to explore the dynamics of learning organisations or else the extent to which organisations could develop an internal environment that promotes and encourages learning for different purposes. However, such studies are much more limited for developing countries, including Pakistan (Alam, 2009; Bhatnagar and Sharma, 2005; Kharbanda, 2002). This could be due to the increasing number of definitions and characterisations of learning organisations and the importance given by different researchers to different features of the learning organisation.

Responding to this knowledge gap, this paper reflects on the application of the learning organisation paradigm to the climate change adaptation agenda in the context of urban Pakistani local government. Its structure is as follows. From the review of academic literature, the paper initially provides a theoretical underpinning to the organisational learning paradigm, as well as highlighting some of the key characteristics often attributed to a learning organisation. These conceptual characteristics are then examined with primary data, as elicited from a series of 21 semi‐structured interviews carried out with Pakistani local government officials. A process of evaluation then enables to consider how such an approach may help to encourage change for adaptation activity in Pakistani urban local government.

As stated by Levitt and March (1988), it is important to develop a comprehension of how public sector organisations learn from their own experience, how they learn from other organisations, and how they develop their own internal understanding and framework for action. Initially, one of the fundamental questions could be: who learns and what […] the public sector organisations or the individuals […] or both? Another fundamental question is how learning takes place, i.e. how do public sector organisations learn? Individuals learn and afterwards change their attitudes and possibly their perceptions of nearby settings. However, learning also has a number of implications at a collective level, which could change the overall behaviour of groups or public sector organisations. This reveals that developing a better understanding of how public sector organisations actually learn is vital for any change initiative.

Nevis et al. (1995) define organisational learning as the “capacity” or the “processes within an organisation” that actually allow it to increase the effectiveness of its working. Also, as Lopez et al. (2005, p. 228) indicate, organisational learning is a “dynamic and adaptive process that engages the creation, acquisition and integration of knowledge”. Pahor et al. (2008), Beeby and Booth (2000), Argyris and Schön (1996) and Senge (1990) are of the view that organisations learn by the efforts of individuals attached to those organisations, particularly in relation to communications and interactions with internal and external groupings. Kim (1993) considers that almost all organisations learn whether they knowingly choose to or not. Hence, what is critical to bring change within an organisation is not only the learning rate, learning material and individuals who learn, but also how learning is captured, transferred and converted internally as action.

In the academic literature, policy learning (ideas) is also considered to be an important element for bringing change and innovation in government organisations (Szarka, 2006; Braun and Benninghoff, 2003; Benz, 2002; Braun and Busch, 1999; Sabatier, 1993; Fischer and Forester, 1993; Bennett and Howlett, 1992). Policy, in general, is considered to be a series of proposed actions taken up by a government. As stated by Bennett and Howlett (1992), policy learning relates to a pre‐arranged, planned and cognisant change in thoughts regarding a particular policy topic. Similarly, change and innovation are considered to be a shift in actions, which is mostly due to a “change in thought”. However, it is important to take into account that change and innovation are both directly and indirectly connected to “learning” and “knowledge”. The scale and method of change and innovation is further influenced by the form of the knowledge implicated in the change initiative, and the type and nature of the organisation. Sabatier (1993) is of the view that policy learning is a type of shared learning, as policy is formulated and implemented simultaneously by a number of different organisations. In general, a key feature of policy learning is that it engages intra‐organisational as well as inter‐organisational learning to bring about change. However, this also creates some intricacy in relation to who learns “what” and “why”, as this involves both individual and collective thinking. Sabatier (1993) also considers policy learning as a long‐term change of thoughts or behavioural intentions that are related to the achievement of a specific belief system, arguing that this is similar to the typical learning‐based view (organisational learning) as it considers a long‐term change of thoughts (within an organisation) with simultaneously changes in frames, values and meanings to make it a learning‐organisation in a specific context.

Learning for climate change adaptation is a new, but an important and challenging, research area. McEvoy et al. (2008) stress the need for making space for adaptation learning in decision‐making domains. Indeed, the authors consider the concept of “climate change adaptation as a learning process” a vital component of an adaptation framework for action at the local level (McEvoy et al., 2008). Other literature (Pelling et al., 2008; Adger et al., 2005; McCarthy et al., 2001) suggests that one of the key aims of adaptation is to build “adaptive capacity”, commonly defined as the “ability of a system to adjust to climate change, including climate variability and extremes, to moderate potential dangers, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences”. Easterling et al. (2004) noted that adaptive capacity reflects how well an organisation is capable of adjusting to dynamic climatic changes. Fazey et al. (2007) are of the view that developing the ability to learn flexibly in a variety of ways, contexts and circumstances, is an important element of developing adaptive capacity. They argue that the widespread implementation of modern social science related approaches could make a substantial contribution to building and maintaining adaptive capacity in the context of climate change. Eriksen (2000) claimed that a crucial part of building adaptive capacity is to develop a suitable policy to facilitate the learning for local people's innate, dynamic and integrated adaptation approaches. Change in policy for climate change adaptation alone is not enough – enabling conditions (including learning) for the functioning of a wide‐ranging portfolio of policies is also necessary.

Lovell et al. (2002) suggest that without change in organisations (with learning as a part of that change), adaptation efforts will remain unproductive as the current top‐down (scenario‐based and technical) and bottom‐up (vulnerability reduction and moving towards resilience and social and organisational) approaches will remain disconnected, and organisations will therefore continue to function with large, outdated and ineffective structures. In one of its reports, ICSU (2005) places considerable importance on considering soft organisational aspects such as: learning, culture, history and psychology. Folke et al. (2002) stress the development of adaptive, flexible and learning institutions in responding to the non‐linear dynamics of natural and human systems for environmental action. In the context of learning to adapt, the quality of local government operation will be critical. Huq et al. (2007, p. 6) consider that in well‐governed cities “good provision for storm and surface drainage can easily be built into the urban fabric, along with complementary measures to protect flooding”. Also, they consider that “in poorly governed cities this does not happen, and it is common for buildings and infrastructure to be constructed that actually disrupt drainage channels”. This example highlights the pivotal role that the local public sector plays in implementing actual adaptation measures, while needing to avoid instances of mal‐adaptation. However, little of the current literature has attempted to identify the factors relevant to better adaptation performance at the urban local level, and the role that learning has in its facilitation.

In order to understand how an organisation could bring about change through learning, DiBella (1995) highlights three common perspectives of learning through which change within organisations can be attained:

• 1.

  A normative perspective that observes learning as taking place only under specific settings, i.e. learning within organisations is captured by focusing on characteristics (for example, leadership, vision, culture, governance and creativity) that make sure that learning is deliberately tailored.

• 2.

  A developmental perspective which considers learning within organisations as emergent and growing over time.

• 3.

  A capability perspective that observes different learning approaches as legitimate and does not specify characteristics.

DiBella (1995) considers learning as rooted in the customs, traditions and structure of the organisation. The review of contemporary literature about learning indicates that there are some similarities as well as differences in relation to the question “how to bring about change through aspirations of organisational learning”? However, a large number of studies (Berg and Chyung, 2008; Sheaff and Pilgrim, 2007; Vassalou, 2001; Pedler et al., 1991; DiBella, 1995) focus on the characteristics model of learning for organisations through which change within organisations could be attained.

There are no noteworthy studies available for Pakistani context that address the notion of learning in Pakistani organisations. Studies in the region are also very limited but are starting to materialise in some countries like India (Bhatnagar and Sharma, 2005; Kharbanda, 2002), and Thailand (Hallinger and Kantamara, 2000). Different threads of research from these neighbouring Asian countries also point to common themes in discussions of learning and learning organisations, primarily revolving around the similar characteristics discussed above. In attempting to identify and examine characteristics that could promote adaptation learning and action on the part of Pakistani urban local government, it is appropriate to consider some of the aspirations (characteristics) that have emerged from the “organisational learning” literature (Fazey et al., 2007; Lovell et al., 2002; Folke et al., 2002; Eriksen, 2000). From the analysis, five different framing characteristics were identified that would be of potential relevance to bring about change for climate change adaptation learning and action in urban Pakistani local government. These were categorised as: leadership for adaptation, vision for adaptation, organisational culture for adaptation, good governance for adaptation and innovation and creativity for adaptation.

Five initial scoping interviews (the exploratory stage) were conducted in Pakistan to confirm the enabling characteristics that had been identified by the literature review. Interviews were conducted with one academic, one local climate change expert, one person from a non‐governmental organisation (NGO) and two persons from District Office Environment, Rawalpindi. These specific stakeholders were selected on the basis of their expertise and relevance to the aims of this research. The purpose of initial interviewing was to establish convergence (agreement or disagreement), and therefore the sample size was not as important as ensuring that convergence had been reached. The five characteristics that were identified during the literature review provided the basis for the initial round of interviews. Provision was also made for the possibility of new characteristics emerging during this engagement process, therefore iterative analysis and reflection was needed before commencing the second part of the research programme; the larger series of in‐depth interviews.

The initial five interviews confirmed the different key characteristics considered necessary for urban Pakistani local government to promote beneficial change in the context of climate change adaptation. The academic interviewee suggested including an additional category of “resources for adaptation”, as well as the already identified characteristics, as he considered it a critical component of supporting learning and action in the Pakistani context. One of the interviewees mentioned that “good governance for adaptation” should also involve those people who are most at risk, hence flagging a need to improve community engagement processes at the local level. The potential role for private actors was also highlighted at the urban local level in Pakistan; especially as local government alone cannot do this task. Interviewees (climate change expert and NGO representative) also suggested including “resources for adaptation” as a critical factor needed to support adaptation learning and action on the part of urban Pakistani local government. Another interviewee pointed out that the current level of financial assistance for adaptation learning and action at the urban local government in Pakistan is negligible through provincial and federal levels, in comparison to the perceived high level of financial requirements actually needed for adaptation. The academic interviewee said:

One of the interviewee from the District Office Environment, Rawalpindi argued that:

After concluding the round of initial interviews, it was observed that all interviewees confirmed the five initial characteristics identified by the literature review. Their consensual view was that these characteristics, if initiated and implemented properly, could bring about change within urban Pakistani local government in the context of climate change adaptation learning and action. However, there was also a strong desire amongst interviewees to include the obviously important characteristic “resources for adaptation”. In summary, these initial interviews contributed to the aims of the research in two key ways: first they confirmed the selection of the five initial characteristics; and second they identified an additional characteristic that had not been a primary consideration from the review of literature.

In the second part of the research programme, 16 in‐depth interviews were carried out. Interviewees were grouped into two cases (Cases I and II) of eight personnel of one urban‐based government organisation (City District Government, Lahore). This process was specifically designed to better understand the characteristics that had been identified by the combination of literature review and scoping interviews, and to further examine and substantiate the framing of variables needed to support change within urban local government in the context of climate adaptation learning and action. Interviews were conducted with representatives of Lahore City District Government (senior and middle management staff), University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore and NGOs. Again, interviewees were selected on the basis of their expertise and relevance to the aims of the research. There were two important rationales why interviews were conducted with a range of different government and non‐government actors for this analysis. First, to match and cross‐reference the views that were obtained in the initial interviews. This increased the spread of data and hence its validity. The second rationale was that by examining two cases in one urban local level public sector organisation, this further strengthened data validity across each of the individual cases. The focus on one local authority was also governed by practical considerations. First, these were operational; both in terms of time and gaining access to a reasonable number of interviewees. Second, the great distances that would have been involved in travelling to other areas of Pakistan. Thus, both time and distance constraints made it impractical to interview staff members from urban local government outside the Punjab province in Pakistan.

The interview notes were converted into data matrices (research issue, response and theme), so that a pattern matching process could be established. Each data matrix was divided into two sections. The data matrices were then populated to analyse the data. The upper section was for the data gathered from Case‐I and the lower section was for the data gathered from Case‐II. Each of the sections was comprised of eight cells, used to display the views of each respondent. Each cell was further divided into a space for each of the eight respondents. In each of the spaces the key response from that person was recorded and from this a pattern matching process, as developed by Yin (1994), was carried out by identifying either the most common comment, or any dissenting comment made concerning that question.

The key findings arising from the analysis are discussed below by presenting the most notable comments and arguments that were associated with each of the pre‐defined characteristics. The semi‐structured nature of the interviews not only allowed views and commentary on the framing and detail of the six identified characteristics but also its applicability to the “reality” of urban Pakistani local government and how the framing may be affected by changes to its current situation. Overall, the general consensus was a high degree of support for the framing of the characteristics, i.e. leadership for adaptation, vision for adaptation, culture for adaptation, good governance for adaptation, innovation and creativity for adaptation and resources for adaptation in urban Pakistani local government in order to bring about change in the context of climate adaptation learning and action. However, they also introduced a strong caveat that current government strategies are not explicitly placing any attention on how to support these important characteristics, so that adaptation related actions could be started.

The case study interviewees indicated that the characteristic of effective leadership for adaptation learning and action was highly valued in Pakistani context. One of the academic interviewees noted that in contrary to mitigation (actions that generate benefits which are largely global), adaptation generates benefits that are largely local. This indicates that if Pakistani urban local government start adaptation learning and action, they would actually capture benefits for themselves of the most of their initiatives, establishing a strong motivation to adapt. This also makes clear why a wide range of local adaptation plans and actions are being observed throughout the world to manage and reduce climate risks. But why then do we, however, observe adaptation learning and action deficits in Pakistani urban local government? Why does not self interest motivate Pakistani local government leaders to do more to protect their area from climate hazards? Some interviewees mentioned that Pakistani urban local government leaders could find several barriers to obstruct adaptation learning and action, including: competing priorities that put demands on scarce resources, insufficient financial resources that could limit capacity to adapt (especially in small urban Pakistani local level environment offices), lack of knowledge, weak local governance, degraded natural resources, inadequate infrastructure and distorted incentives. Barriers such as these could sternly hamper what local government leaders should do for climate adaptation learning and action in urban areas of Pakistan. However, some interviewees also thought that interventions by Pakistani urban local government leaders can create “enabling conditions” that could better make stakeholders to overcome the barriers and take adaptation actions to help save their area. Hence, enabling the process for climate adaptation learning and action is also a key adaptation that Pakistani urban local government “leaders” could make.

Overall, the perceptions of the interviewees for first characteristic indicate that a key ingredient for successfully learning and action of adaptation is the presence of effective local leadership that is enthusiastic to advance adaptation objectives further – in other words presence of a local adaptation champion. The local adaptation leaders in Pakistan could be the head of a local area from the political domain, or any other public functionary who is eager and committed to initiate and advance its local adaptation agenda by kicking off many actions, such as:

• Initiate assessments of current climate change trends and future projections for their area of jurisdiction based on available local resources.

• Initiate undertaking climate risk and vulnerability assessments of their area of jurisdiction (some interviewees mentioned that district office environment, Lahore as well as all other local environment offices in Punjab have not yet collected and analysed this information and would therefore have to develop these assessments from scratch).

• Initiate identifying priority areas where adaptation learning and actions should be focused.

• Initiate crafting adaptation learning plans using current and new tools.

• Initiate adaptation actions utilising various applicable tools.

• Initiate developing, implementing, monitoring, reviewing and modifying local‐level adaptation learning and action programmes within their normal development budgets.

• Initiate community participation (involving persons at risk – the intended beneficiaries) in the process of adaptation learning and action, which can increase the effectiveness of adaptation to climate change in urban local areas of Pakistan.

The authors argue that a general benefit of participating in climate adaptation learning and action programmes is that it could facilitate climate risks being placed in context with other complex social settings and could provide opportunities to solutions that can be shared to achieve various objectives. While initiating the above‐mentioned actions, Pakistani urban local government leaders may also engage stakeholders in order to learn from their indigenous knowledge and to identify vulnerable areas and some potential practical adaptation initiatives. This engagement process is vital to bring local actors together and to give them learning and sharing opportunities, so that they could get an insight into the projected climate change impacts and potential adaptation strategies. Some of the interviewees also noted that it is essential to build “will” of Pakistani urban local government leaders so that they allocate sufficient financial resources for planning and implementation of adaptation strategies, because some of the adaptation actions may require significant funding or politically disliked. Moreover, some of the adaptation learning and action strategies may need some trade‐offs on which the stakeholders would also require to be planned. Interviewees also pointed out that the Pakistani urban local leaders should initiate assessments of the adaptive capacity of their local area to adapt to climate change impacts. In Pakistani urban local government, there are presently no plans for assessing the adaptive capacity of different sectors, but this is a gap that could be addressed through effectual local leadership for adaptation.

Interviewees also pointed out that in Pakistan, especially in urban local government, there is an embedded supposition that only those at executive level implement the vision, as those at junior level require simply carrying out their routine work as they are just workers whose work is to “do”, rather than to “think”. In Pakistani urban local governments this supposition also appears to have been embraced. As a result some of those who take action in accordance with the vision, are involved in the process of planning and developing their local government's vision. Unfortunately, many subordinates working for the environmental protection in Pakistani urban local government are even not aware of what the big picture is for environmental protection and climate adaptation, nor their role within that bigger picture because they have no idea of the vision (based on one of the authors' personal experience while working with the Rawalpindi local government). Thus, if the rationale of the organisational vision is to give direction and guidance in a specific context, such as learning and action for climate adaptation, then it appears feasible that those who are supposed to implement the vision should also participate in its development (Hamel, 2000). In the case of urban Pakistani local government, the authors argue that the vision for climate adaptation should be based on three interlinked guiding principles:

• 1.

  Adaptation activities (learning and action) are planned on the basis of learning from current past climate inconsistency and extreme events.

• 2.

  Adaptation activities (learning and action) are strongly connected to development processes, and planned within the on‐going local level planning and development programmes.

• 3.

  Adaptation activities (learning and action) are taking place at different scales within the urban local areas, primarily with the help of Pakistani local government environment staff.

Once the vision for climate adaptation learning and action in urban Pakistani local government is formulated and understood by the staff, strategies to adapt to climate change can then be developed straight‐forwardly.

The in‐depth interviewees also mentioned that Pakistani urban local government, as with all other public sector organisations working in Pakistan, have an exclusive and exceptional organisational culture. It is the culture that influences the way in which Pakistani staff working at the local level proceeds or is encouraged to proceed, corresponding to achieving both personal and organisational aims. Moreover, there is a very strong connection between the ethics, customs and actions of the stakeholders related to Pakistani local government. One of the interviewees, having vast working experience for environmental protection in Pakistan, thought that the current organisational culture within Pakistani urban local government would avert them changing for climate adaptation as their culture does not encourage, support and value learning and action for climate change in most instances. Many researchers (Fazey et al., 2007; Ogbonna and Harris, 2000) argue that to build up an apposite organisational culture, one that encourages and gives value to learning and action, a paradigm shift is needed for those who show the way (leaders) before that new paradigm could be established. Hence, the development of an apposite organisational culture for adaptation in Pakistani local government would need more than just time, but the setting up of an entirely novel set of collective values to make certain that this cultural change can be attained; as this set of commonly shared values requires to embrace trusting each another, empowering others and to create innovation (Glanz, 1999). The goal of all this is to develop a value of learning for climate adaptation in Pakistani local government staff, and to convert them into what Collins (2001) names as “learning person”, which will then facilitate individual and shared learning for climate adaptation to happen more readily (Aram and Noble, 1999; Ahmed et al., 1999).

Assessing the means of urban Pakistani local government' ability, capacity and willingness (good governance for adaptation) to plan for learning and implementing climate adaptation programmes were also seemed high valued during the in‐depth interviewing. This is consistent with what has been argued by Devas (2001) that the level to which urban local government is able to supply poor communities with essential infrastructure and facilities is dependent on two aspects: first, on the local government's capacity and capability to fulfil their responsibilities – this time and again depends on good connections with higher levels of government – and second on the responsiveness of local government to the requirements of poor communities. Tanner et al. (2009) and Fernandes (2007) have linked good governance for environmental protection and climate change (devolution and independence; answerability and transparency; responsiveness and flexibility; participation and inclusion; and experience and support) with national level actions to facilitate greater decentralised legal, institutional and financial space for urban local areas in order for the local government to be effective and more accountable to their citizens. However, the recent decentralisation experiment in Pakistan indicates that such devolution to local government is only effective when ample time is also provided to build up local capacity, capability and appropriate accountability mechanisms.

The need for increased innovation and creativity for adaptation were also thought essential in urban Pakistani local context for climate adaptation learning and action during the in‐depth interviewing. Most of the interviewees mentioned that due to continued funding cuts in the recent past, the load on staff at Pakistani local government, particularly environment staff, has increased significantly. This has created a crisis for the development of innovation and creativity for environmental protection and climate adaptation in Pakistani local government, as there has been a loss of both the time to think and reflect; yet this time is a precursor to increase innovation and creativity and the loss of organisational slack (especially having sufficient staff and resources to develop and implement new ideas, practices and processes for climate adaptation). This loss of thinking time, also pointed out by Janjua and Rehman (2008), is one of the most devastating impacts for environment professionals of urban Pakistani local government to move towards local resilience. Further, as Noharia and Gulati (1996) argue, innovation and creativity are lost if there is too little organisational flexibility, if resources are insufficient and not available in a timely manner. Hence, providing urban Pakistani local government professionals with ample thinking time is also a key determinant of the level to which innovation and creativity demonstrated in Pakistani local government for climate adaptation.

The interviewees also considered that urban Pakistani local government need to be funded sufficiently (resources for adaptation) by the internal (federal and provincial governments) and external (international donors) bodies, so that they could initiate and implement any adaptation learning and action plans. Importantly, a recurring theme in relation to Pakistani local government was the impact that a lack of funding has on environmental and climate change actions; all the interviewees commented on this characteristic. For instance, one of the interviewees noted: “limited funding is putting huge constraints on our local government to work more effectively on environmental and climate change plans”. Another interviewee noted: “we have had a cut in financial resources for environmental protection, which has meant less work on climate mitigation and adaptation as well”. Across the interviews the most common theme that emerged from the in‐depth interviewing for this characteristic was the lack of availability of funding for implementing any environmental and climate adaptation related actions. The interviewees indicated that Pakistani provincial and federal governments can play an important role in advancing the urban resilience by providing more funding mechanisms for local government. Specifically, Pakistani local government require resources for carrying out actions related to the regional level climate related impact assessments, analysis of risks, and any planning actions thereafter. However, expanding programmes that attract funds from various national and international sources can help encourage and enable Pakistani urban local government to adapt ahead of climate impacts as opposed to in their wake.

Much of what has emerged from the literature review has been corroborated through field observations. If applied carefully and willingly, then the learning organisation characteristics may help bring about change for adaptation activity in urban Pakistani local government. Six interconnecting issues become evident from this piece of research and steer our conceptual and real world evidence to climate adaptation learning and action by Pakistani urban local government:

• 1.

  Presence of effective local leadership. The local adaptation leaders in Pakistan should be the head of the relevant authority in the local area, or other public functionaries who are committed to initiate and advance its local adaptation agenda by initiating actions, such as: creating enabling conditions for taking the adaptation process forward; initiating risk and vulnerability assessments; and engaging stakeholders.

• 2.

  Vision for climate adaptation. The vision in Pakistani urban local government should be based on three interlinked guiding principles:

  • adaptation activities (learning and action) are planned on the basis of learning from current knowledge of past climate inconsistency and extreme events;

  • adaptation activities (learning and action) are strongly connected to development processes, and planned within the on‐going local level planning and development programmes; and

  • adaptation activities (learning and action) are taking place at different scales within the urban local areas, primarily with the help of Pakistani local government environment staff.

• 3.

  Culture within Pakistani urban local government. The current culture within Pakistani urban local government does not encourage, support or value learning and action for climate change in most instances. The development of an apposite culture for adaptation in urban Pakistani local government would need more than just time, but the setting up of an entirely novel set of collective values to make certain that this cultural change can be attained.

• 4.

  Adaptation attached to a “good governance” agenda. One of the important characteristics, amongst others, for successfully learning and implementing adaptation in urban Pakistani local government is the presence of attributes of “good governance” at the local level including: devolution and independence; answerability and transparency; responsiveness and flexibility; participation and inclusion; and experience and support. A key part of the vision and leadership for adaptation should include plans to develop a more understanding and supportive culture.

• 5.

  Innovation and creativity for adaptation. With an effective leadership, vision and governance, many innovative actions could be planned and implemented in order to move the adaptation agenda forward. Pakistani urban local government could initiate adaptation innovativeness through various means – from academic institutions to religious organisations, from scientific communities to cultural and artistic groups, from community and indigenous workers to public intellectuals.

• 6.

  Adaptation funding. There is a lack of availability of funding for implementing adaptation strategies in urban Pakistani local government. Pakistani provincial and federal governments can play an important role in advancing the urban resilience by providing funding mechanisms for local adaptation actions. Specifically, resources are required for carrying out actions related to the regional level climate related impact assessments, analysis of risks and any planning actions thereafter. Developing programmes and projects that attract funds, nationally and internationally, could also help encourage and enable local government to adapt ahead of climate impacts as opposed to in their wake. Additionally, any provincial and federal legislation that are proposed to combat climate change directly or indirectly could also help advance adaptation priorities by providing additional financial support at the local level.

As we indicate it is critical to understand that progress towards the learning and action for climate change adaptation in Pakistani urban local government is likely to be incremental, rather than an overnight transformation. However, in the urban Pakistani local level context, learning and action for climate change adaptation should not be ignored or disregarded. Rather, a start must be made. Climate change adaptation needs to be esteemed and incorporated into the local government level functions and the work life of the employees. Moreover, a process of learning and action for climate change adaptation at the urban local government level in Pakistan should be gradually strengthened to establish a clear adaptation paradigm, and planned as a voyage, or steady pursuit for evolving adaptation.

An earlier version of this paper was presented in ESF‐FMSH Entre‐Sciences Conference on Interdisciplinary Environmental Sciences “New methodologies and interdisciplinary approaches in Global Change Research”, which was held from 5 to 10 November 2008 in IGeSA, Porquerolles, France. The research described in this paper is a part of PhD work in School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. The authors are grateful to Dr Martin Mulligan for his contribution and helpful comments during finalisation phase of this paper.

Saleem Janjua is a PhD researcher at RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. He is working with School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, as well as Climate Change Adaptation Programme at the Global Cities Research Institute. Previously, Saleem Janjua has worked with United Nations Industrial Development Organization (researcher) and Pakistan's Environmental Protection Agency (Assistant Director). His research awards include: Australian Development Scholarship (2002‐2004); and Australian Postgraduate Award (2007‐2010). Saleem Janjua is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: muhammadsaleem.janjua@rmit.edu.au

Ian Thomas, PhD, is an Associate Professor and the Discipline Head, Environment and Planning at School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, RMIT University, Australia.

Darryn McEvoy, PhD, is an Associate Professor and leads the Climate Change Adaptation Programme at the Global Cities Research Institute, RMIT University, Australia. He is also acting as the Deputy Director of the Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research.