Unveiling the challenges and opportunities of climate change mitigation through climate-smart agriculture in East Africa, systematic review

Food security, livelihoods and the environment are under enormous threat because of climate change (Lee et al., 2023). The East African region relies heavily on agriculture as an economic activity and the impacts are dire. With rampant poverty, rain-fed farming and limited infrastructure, the region is rendered highly vulnerable. Unpredictable rainfall patterns, rising temperatures and extreme weather events like floods and droughts disrupt the farming cycle, thus leading to food scarcity (Kirina et al., 2022). The situation is worsened by rapid population growth that further burdens agricultural resources. This is particularly dire for the smallholder farmers that account for most of the workforce (Yengoh and Ardö, 2020).

East Africa’s agricultural sector, which plays a vital role in its economic stability, faces numerous challenges from climate change. Irregular rainfall, increased temperatures and extreme weather threaten the yield of maize and wheat crops at risk (Tadesse et al., 2022).

The World Meteorological Organization expresses concern regarding the severity of droughts across the globe and the increased risk of flooding because of heavier precipitation events (Lee et al., 2023; Polya, 2023). Furthermore, increased temperatures along with change in precipitation also lower soil quality and fast track desertification, which on its own poses a serious threat to developing regions and food security (Bristol-Alagbariya, 2023).

Biodiversity loss is another adverse problem of climate change. Changing temperature and rainfall patterns disrupt ecosystems, leading to species migration, decline or extinction (Iucn, 2006). In East Africa, water scarcity is intensified by changing rainfall patterns and melting glaciers, putting at risk both rural and urban water supplies and hydropower (Kattel, 2019). Warmer temperatures also contribute to the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever, posing significant health risks to vulnerable populations (Organization, 2021). The rich biodiversity region is also under threat because of habitat loss and extreme weather conditions, highlighting the need for conservation efforts (Li et al., 2013).

Climate change’s socio-economic impacts are particularly harsh on vulnerable communities in East Africa, worsening poverty and displacement (Omotoso et al., 2023). Climate-induced displacement is growing, leading to migration and conflicts over scarce resources (Freeman, 2017). Flooding, intensified by climate change, leads to severe damage to infrastructure such as roads, buildings or bridges. Cities such as Nairobi and Dar es Salaam are impacted by flooding that causes transportation and housing issues. With each occurrence, the economic losses grow further (Long'or Lokidor et al., 2024). As a solution, planning for infrastructure must include climate resilience features which ensures long-term sustainability (Chirisa et al., 2016). Climate change has devastated East Africa, and as a response to climate-smart agriculture (CSA), this systematic review seeks to answer how effective CSA can be for climate mitigation in this region.

The objective of this review is to fully assess the barriers and opportunities of applying CSA as an adaptive strategy to climate change in the Eastern African region. The review attempts to assess the key hindering factors of CSA adoption practices including, but not limited to, social and economic factors, institutional and policy issues, while also seeking to document the successes and scope of CSA implementation. Furthermore, the review aims to provide practical suggestions and recommendations for overcoming these barriers and providing strategies to transition toward CSA adoption in East Africa, emphasizing stakeholder engagement, partnership building, policy integration and financing mechanisms to mainstream CSA into national and regional development agendas.

CSA is an approach of tackling challenges of climate change in agriculture through increasing agricultural productivity, resilience and decreasing greenhouse gas emissions (Faurès et al., 2013). It incorporates sustainable practices like agroforestry, better crop varieties and conservation tillage for sustainable smallholder farming systems for climate change mitigation by increasing carbon sequestration (Lipper et al., 2014). The implementation of CSA varies by region, requiring tailored solutions based on local socio-economic and environmental conditions. In sub-Saharan Africa where agriculture is heavily dependent on rainfall, CSA adapts to the erratic rainfall by incorporating water management practices like rainwater harvesting and conserving soil moisture (Huyer and Partey, 2020).

CSA involves a range of practices and technologies suited to different agro-ecological contexts, including agroforestry, conservation agriculture, improved crop varieties, water management techniques and advanced livestock production and management practices. These practices aim to build resilience in agricultural systems to climate variability and changes. For example, agroforestry systems that integrate trees with crops provide multiple benefits, soil fertility, moisture retention and diversified income sources, so farmers are more resilient to drought and floods (Lin, 2011). Conservation agriculture techniques such as minimum tillage and cover cropping promote soil health and moisture conservation and reduce the impact of erratic rainfall and soil erosion (Powlson et al., 2014). Moreover, according to Lipper et al. (2014), practices such as agroforestry, crop diversification and conservation tillage have shown great potential to improve resilience of agricultural systems. Agroforestry which is integrating trees into agricultural landscapes can enhance biodiversity, improve soil health and provide additional income sources, so farmers can withstand climatic shocks.

CSA resilience will not only increase resilience but also bring emissions by agriculture mitigation, as an important contribution to global emissions. Distinct measures of sustainable land management such as agroforestry along with better nutrient management would sequester carbon in vegetation and soils, offset emissions, decrease albedo and take part in climate change mitigation as per Smith et al. (2007). Moreover, the adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties and livestock breeds with lower methane emissions potential can further reduce the carbon footprint of agricultural production systems (Rosenzweig et al., 2014). Through the promotion practices that increase carbon sequestration and reduce emissions intensity, CSA offers the way toward more climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable agriculture.

One of the key strengths of CSA lies in its capacity to empower smallholder farmers, who are the most affected by climate change impacts (Lipper et al., 2014). Access to climate-smart technologies, knowledge and finance through CSA enables farmers to adapt to changing climatic conditions and improve their livelihoods. Farmer-centered approaches, such as participatory extension services and farmer field schools, further promote such innovation and knowledge sharing among farming communities, hence increasing farmers’ adaptive capacity and resilience (Bommarco et al., 2018). Moreover, by diversifying income sources and reducing production risks, CSA contributes to poverty reduction and food security, particularly in vulnerable rural areas (Thornton et al., 2006).

The assessment relies on the qualitative techniques of systematic review and analysis from the literature to find recurring themes on challenges, opportunities and best practices for CSA. Authors used systematic search strategies, particularly through such databases as Google Scholar, Web of Science and AGORA, as well as institutional repositories to identify peer-reviewed articles, reports and gray studies.

The literature search was systematically conducted using Google Scholar, Web of Science and AGORA. The timeframe for search was for studies published from 2001 and 2024 in credible journals. This was further limited to studies regarding East Africa. Some of the keywords that triggered relevant searches included impact of climate change in East Africa, challenges to CSA implementation and adopting as well as best practices and initiatives of CSA in East Africa.

Figure 1 shows the PRISMA flowchart, used by different authors (Gebrekidan and Gebremedhin, 2024; Gebrekidan, 2024; Gebrekidan et al., 2025, 2024a, 2024b) which indicates the process of selecting the literature for systematic review. Stage 1 involved identifying a total of 1,142 online materials through database searches using several keywords and titles. In Stage 2, 446 duplicates were removed, leaving 696 records. Stage 3 consisted of 235 records, while 461 were excluded mostly because of broader study areas and scopes outside East Africa. In Stage 4, after title, abstract and keyword reviews, 147 records passed inclusion criteria, while 60 were excluded. Finally, full-text review was done on 87 records.

Data extraction and compilation into matrix-wise classification into various sections was done after the studies were basically reviewed. These sections comprised: author(s) year of publication, title, study area, objectives, analysis, findings and conclusions regarding CSA practices.

East Africa is experiencing variations in extreme weather events such as prolonged droughts followed by heavy rainfall, which significantly affect food and water security. These extremes pose risks to agricultural productivity and livelihoods, which threatens socio-economic stability. A 5°C temperature rise by the 2090s could lead to a 20% reduction in crop yields, affecting food availability, nutrition and health (Salah et al., 2023; Adhikari et al., 2015). Droughts will reduce crop yields and less feed for livestock, thus worsening food security in the region.

Increased temperature in East Africa has been associated with poor agricultural production as well as increased incidence rates of vector-borne diseases. According to a study, Ethiopia’s mean annual temperature has risen by 1.3°C since 1960, with projections showing further increases by the 2060s and 2090s. Increased temperatures further lead to evaporation and moisture loss in soils, which negatively affect crop yields (Kizza et al., 2009). Moreover, shifts in rainfall patterns might create alternating series of heavy rains and long dry spells, making water resource management and agricultural planning more challenging (Obwocha et al., 2022).

According to predictions, these trends will deepen to create more conditions for food insecurity, water scarcity and health risks. High temperatures create environments for the breakout of diseases such as malaria and dengue, significantly affecting vulnerable populations (Kizza et al., 2009). In addition, the impact of climate change further worsens social inequalities in East Africa, disproportionately affecting women, children and marginalized populations (McCarthy, 2001).

Climate change is creating significant environmental, social and economic challenges in East Africa, severely impacting ecosystems and livelihoods. Alteration of precipitation patterns has made droughts and floods frequent and millennial, adversely affecting agriculture, water resources and biodiversity. Prolonged droughts in the region have resulted in crop failures, food insecurity and livestock losses (Erezi et al., 2023). Rising temperatures also contribute to the melting of glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Rwenzori Mountains, threatening water supply for millions who depend on these rivers (Vuille, 2013).

Climate change socially disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations, such as women, children and indigenous communities. In fact, it is mostly obvious for rural women in East Africa who participate in agriculture and water management and are, therefore, exposed to the impacts of climate change (Eriksen et al., 2008; Leal Filho et al., 2022). Because of limited resources that the communities can use for adaptation, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and marginalization.

Sectors such as agriculture, tourism and infrastructure are all economically threatened. Changed weather patterns influence crop yields and livestock productivity, resulting in income losses for farmers. In addition, the effects on wildlife habitats and natural attractions threaten the tourism industry in countries such as Kenya and Tanzania (Kirina et al., 2022). Floods, which are some of the climate-related disasters, destroy infrastructure, causing further strain on national budgets to divert resources from serious development efforts (McCarthy, 2001).

Addressing these impacts requires coordinated efforts at all levels. CSA, improved water infrastructure and disaster risk reduction strategies are essential for building resilience (Kirina et al., 2022). Gender-responsive adaptation strategies are also crucial to ensure the inclusion of women and vulnerable groups in climate action, empowering them through access to resources and decision-making processes (Awiti, 2022).

CSA is a method planned to transform agricultural systems to improve food security in the face of climate crisis (Ouda and Zohry, 2022). It consists of three key pillars: agricultural productivity, building adaptation to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions wherever possible [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2010]. CSA acknowledges that agriculture simultaneously contributes to and is affected by climate change, attempting to balance adaptation and mitigation in practices (Lipper et al., 2014).

The main pillar of the strategy is to sustainably increase productivity by promoting the use simplified asset application such as agroforestry, precision farming and conservation farming, while minimizing environmental damage (Thornton et al., 2006). The next pillar stresses the need to fight climate-smart technologies, such as drought-resistant crops, diversified cropping systems and improved water management techniques to withstand changing climate patterns (Rosenzweig et al., 2014).

The third pillar’s objective is to reduce emissions from agriculture through sustainable practices, that is improved livestock management, soil carbon sequestration and renewable energy use (Smith et al., 2014). CSA encourages integrating climate change crisis factors into agricultural planning, such as promotion of solar pumps and drought-resistant crops. Overall, CSA’s interconnected principles of sustainability, resilience and mitigation offer a comprehensive solution to climate change’s challenges in agriculture, supporting sustainable food production for the future (Lipper et al., 2014). Generally, the conceptual framework of climate change and CSA is summarized in Figure 2.

To address with the issues posed by climate change, CSA integrates climate adaptation, mitigation and resilience, which are necessary components (Palombi and Sessa, 2013). For instance, Lipper et al. (2014) emphasize that CSA assists farmers in adopting climate-resilient crops and livestock by enhancing agricultural systems’ capacity to cope with climate impacts. Further, these measures increase resilience and promote sustainable agricultural practices like quality-based livestock production [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2010].

As suggested by Smith et al. (2014), CSA assists in achieving both climate mitigation and adaptation goals, such as agroforestry, which enhances soil fertility, water retention and sequesters carbon. Rosenzweig et al. (2014) state that conservation agriculture practices like minimal soil disturbance reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance soil health, making a positive contribution to both mitigation and adaptation. Additionally, Taylor (2018) notes that efficient water use and biodiversity protection as components of CSA support long-term goals.

For CSA to succeed, policy and institutional support is necessary. Providing access to finance, technology and knowledge empowers farmers to adopt climate-smart practices [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2010]. Integrating climate considerations into agricultural policies ensures that adaptation and mitigation become part of broader development agendas, enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems to climate change (Lipper et al., 2014). Overall, CSA offers a sustainable pathway to climate-resilient agriculture (Faurès et al., 2013).

In East Africa, the adoption of CSA faces numerous socio-economic challenges, particularly for smallholder farmers lacking in resources and access to finance (Raj and Garlapati, 2020). Without this support, farmers cannot access drought-resistant seeds and irrigation systems (Taylor, 2018). Moreover, limited access to markets and extension services further constrains CSA adoption, with many farmers having little or no information or market access for climate-resilient crops (Greenhalgh et al., 2017).

Political barriers also hinder CSA implementation, including poor governance, political instability and a lack of coherent policies (Brisebois et al., 2022). Inadequate policy support, land tenure issues and corruption discourage farmers from adopting sustainable practices (Commission, 2020). Additionally, conflicts and instability in the region impede agricultural productivity, thus limiting efforts to promote CSA (Furlow et al., 2011).

Environmental constraints like water scarcity, soil degradation and deforestation also challenge CSA adoption (Neufeldt et al., 2021). Climate change exacerbates these constraints with more frequent droughts and floods; thereupon, farmers invest in short-rather than long-term CSA strategies (Watkiss et al., 2023). Addressing these challenges requires an integrated approach, including improving access to finance, policy coordination and sustainable land management practices like agroforestry and soil conservation (Neufeldt et al., 2021; Garcia and WSG, 2023).

In East Africa, institutional barriers accompanied by policy gaps have severely impacted the scalability and sustainability of CSA. This happens because of poor coordination among government agencies, research institutions and other stakeholders, leading to inefficient use of resources and storage of efforts (Thottadi and Singh, 2024). Additionally, fragmented institutional capacity at both national and local levels limits the development and implementation of coherent CSA policies (Branca et al., 2021). This fragmentation restricts the effectiveness of CSA initiatives across the region (Commission, 2020).

Policy gaps further complicate CSA adoption. While some countries have developed climate strategies, the absence of specific CSA-focused policies, incentives and regulatory frameworks creates uncertainty for farmers and investors (Hussain et al., 2022). Inconsistent land tenure, water management policies and inadequate carbon market regulations also hinder CSA scaling (Neufeldt et al., 2018). Additionally, limited financial resources and investment mechanisms, particularly for smallholder farmers, reduce CSA’s impact. High transaction costs and perceived risks deter private sector investment, further limiting the expansion of CSA initiatives (Neufeldt et al., 2018, 2021).

The above-mentioned challenges require coordinated efforts by the governments, civil society and the private sector. Efforts should be put into strengthening institutional coordination and developing a sound policy framework that facilitates CSA, including land tenure reforms and climate-resilient insurance schemes (Branca et al., 2021). Further, innovative financing mechanisms like climate-smart credit and public–private partnerships could help to mobilize resources and promote private sector investment in CSA (Watkiss et al., 2023).

East Africa has seen emerging CSA strategies and developments. One of the big strategies is the progress on climate resilience crops varieties and livestock breed compatibility with the local conditions. Genetically modified crops, such as drought-resistant maize and heat-resistant beans, have improved the resilience of smallholder farmers (Ocimati et al., 2021). Moreover, heat- and disease-tolerant indigenous livestock breed introduction can enhance resiliency and livestock production (Branca et al., 2021).

As shown on Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, the agroecological approaches are critical for promoting CSA through the application of ecological principles to agricultural systems. Strategies such as crop diversification, agroforestry and organic farming increase biodiversity, soil health and resilience (Altieri et al., 2015). These practices decrease reliance on external inputs and contribute to smallholder farmers’ ability to adjust to changing climate conditions (Erezi et al., 2023).

To scale up CSA in East Africa, innovative financing mechanisms are needed. Climate-smart credit facilities, microfinance and climate risk insurance support farmers in making investments to practice climate-resilient plant and livestock production (Neufeldt et al., 2021). Furthermore, investment in CSA projects is reinforced by public–private partnerships and value chain financing models leveraging private sector expertise and resources to support smallholder farmers (Doyle et al., 2018). Strengthening institutional capacities and using digital technologies, such as mobile apps and GIS, also enhance decision-making and promote knowledge exchange among farmers (Herforth et al., 2020; Garcia and WSG, 2023).

In East Africa, collaboration between the government and non-governmental organization (NGO) plays crucial role in promoting CSA. For example, collaborations between the Kenyan Government and organizations like World Vision and CARE International have facilitated sustainable land management and crop diversification initiatives (Makokha and Waswa, 2022). These partnerships combine government resources and NGO expertise to strengthen agricultural resilience in vulnerable communities.

International organizations and national governments are super important in scaling CSA interventions. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has worked with Ethiopia, Uganda and Tanzania to develop national CSA strategies and action plans, providing technical support and capacity building to enhance agricultural resilience (Kim et al., 2023). Similarly, research institutions like the International Livestock Research Institute have partnered with farmer organizations to promote climate-resilient livestock management and pasture rehabilitation (Kirina et al., 2022).

Collaborations between private sector and NGOs help smallholder farmers adopt CSA innovations. In Tanzania, Syngenta and TechnoServe have introduced drought-tolerant maize varieties and agronomic training to farmers, improving their resilience to climate change (Ilakut et al., 2022). Multi-stakeholder platforms such as the Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance further enhance CSA efforts by fostering dialogue and collaboration among governments, NGOs, farmers and the private sector (Osumba and Recha, 2022).

Donor–recipient partnerships, such as those between the Green Climate Fund and Kenya and Rwanda, mobilize resources for CSA projects, including soil conservation and water harvesting (Fund, 2020). Additionally, South–South cooperation, like the Ethiopia–Brazil partnership, promotes agroecology and small-scale irrigation through knowledge exchange and peer learning (Waisbich, 2022). These diverse partnerships ensure CSA initiatives are well-supported and sustainable across the region.

Education and training programs are essential for raising awareness about CSA practices in East Africa. By teaching farmers about conservation agriculture, agroforestry and water harvesting, these programs help them adapt to climate change and improve agricultural productivity (Tesfaye et al., 2023). Training also emphasizes soil conservation, crop diversification and water management, which are crucial for mitigating climate risks.

Capacity-building initiatives, like farmer field schools, provide hands-on training, equipping farmers with practical skills in sustainable farming (Shekmohammed et al., 2023). These programs foster innovation by encouraging farmers to experiment with new techniques and share knowledge with peers, promoting practices such as intercropping and organic farming (Kirina et al., 2022). This empowers farmers to make informed decisions and adopt adaptive strategies, enhancing their resilience to climate change (Solomon et al., 2018).

Strengthening agricultural extension services through education and training enhances the reach and effectiveness of technical support to farmers. Extension workers facilitate field demonstrations and provide advisory support on climate-smart practices (Zerssa et al., 2021). Additionally, digital tools like mobile apps and radio broadcasts provide farmers with timely information on weather, pest alerts and market prices, improving transparency and efficiency (Ngigi and Muange, 2022).

Education programs also promote gender equality by ensuring women farmers have equal access to resources, knowledge and decision-making processes (Eastin and Dupuy, 2021). Community-based training fosters collaboration among diverse groups, building resilient communities capable of addressing climate-related challenges. This knowledge dissemination supports policy development and contributes to sustainable development goals by enhancing food security and environmental sustainability (Kirina et al., 2022).

Training programs and extension services are crucial for building technical capacity and empowering local communities to adopt CSA in East Africa. Organizations like the FAO and IFAD work with governments to deliver farmer field schools, workshops and demonstration plots, equipping farmers with skills in soil conservation, water management and agroforestry (Tesfaye et al., 2023). These programs enhance farmers’ practical knowledge of sustainable agriculture.

Peer learning and knowledge exchange further support CSA adoption by promoting collaboration among farmers and stakeholders. Farmer-to-farmer networks and platforms like the East African Farmers Federation facilitate the sharing of experiences, lessons learned and innovative climate-resilient solutions (Solomon et al., 2018). Such initiatives encourage collaborative problem-solving and adaptation.

Digital technologies play an increasingly vital role in CSA by providing farmers with real-time access to weather forecasts, market information and agronomic advice. Mobile apps, radio broadcasts and Web platforms help farmers make informed decisions about their farming practices. Organizations like the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) use ICT tools to improve decision-making and knowledge dissemination (Kirina et al., 2022).

Participatory research and innovation engage farmers in co-developing CSA solutions tailored to local conditions. Farmer-led experiments, breeding programs and on-farm trials help identify climate-resilient practices. By involving farmers in research and valuing indigenous knowledge, organizations like CIAT foster ownership and sustainability in CSA projects (Osumba and Recha, 2022).

Access to climate information services is essential for empowering communities to make informed decisions about CSA. Accurate weather forecasts, early warning systems and climate risk assessments help farmers mitigate impacts and adapt to changing conditions. Programs like the Climate Services for Agriculture initiative provide farmers with tailored advisory services to support their CSA efforts (Ngigi and Muange, 2022).

To empower local communities to adopt CSA solutions, a theory of change framework (Figure 3) commences with building their capacity through training and extension services, together with peer learning and knowledge sharing. These interventions aim to build a foundation of knowledge and skills, enabling farmers to understand and implement sustainable agricultural practices. Leveraging digital technologies and information exchange, communities can access real-time data and climate-smart practices, and participatory research and innovation ensures local challenges and opportunities are addressed through co-created solutions. These efforts, reinforced by access to climate information services, allow farmers to anticipate climate risks and adjust their practices, improving both productivity and resilience.

Further transformation is achieved by integrating financial support and incentives, making CSA adoption economically viable. At the same time, policy advocacy and institutional support ensure a conducive policy environment that fosters CSA practices at the grassroots level. Through community-based adaptation and resilience-building, local groups are empowered to create context-specific solutions to climate challenges. Social mobilization and empowerment strengthen collective action, while South–South cooperation and knowledge sharing facilitate the exchange of successful CSA models across regions, fostering sustainable agricultural practices on a broader scale. Ultimately, these interconnected interventions lead to sustainable, climate-resilient communities.

Governments in East Africa should prioritize the development and implementation of comprehensive strategies. Clearly outlining goals and actions across sectors like crop production, livestock management and natural resource conservation (Tesfaye et al., 2023). By embedding CSA in national policies, governments can create a framework for promoting climate resilience in agriculture.

Policymakers must ensure coherence between CSA policies and other areas like climate adaptation, food security and rural development. Integrated policies help maximize synergies, minimize trade-offs and allocate resources more effectively for sustainable agriculture (Solomon et al., 2018). This holistic approach promotes cross-cutting solutions to climate challenges.

To enhance CSA implementation, governments need to strengthen institutional capacities and coordination. Creating dedicated units within ministries like agriculture, environment and finance, alongside fostering collaboration with civil society and the private sector, ensures effective policy execution and governance (Thottadi and Singh, 2024). This will improve inter-ministerial coordination and stakeholder involvement.

Investing in research and innovation is crucial for advancing CSA technologies and practices. Research institutions and universities should be supported in generating knowledge and testing climate-resilient solutions (Kirina et al., 2022). By prioritizing research, governments can promote the adoption of climate-smart technologies and sustainable agricultural practices.

Policymakers should also focus on financial incentives to encourage CSA adoption. Providing grants, subsidies and credit facilities tailored to smallholder farmers’ needs will enable them to invest in climate-resilient technologies and infrastructure (Mungai et al., 2021). Access to finance is vital for boosting farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change impacts.

The review highlights that governments and development finance institutions should establish CSA Investment Funds to mobilize CSA project financing in East Africa. These funds can pool resources from public, private and philanthropic sources to support sustainable land management, climate-resilient crop production and agroforestry (Mungai et al., 2021). By offering concessional finance, risk-sharing mechanisms and technical assistance, these funds can attract private sector investment and expand CSA initiatives across the region.

Public–private partnerships have been found to be essential for unlocking financing for CSA projects in East Africa. Governments collaboration with agribusinesses, financial institutions and technology providers to co-finance CSA initiatives, share risks and create value-added products (Mungai et al., 2021). Public–private partnerships offer a platform for blending public and private resources, addressing market failures and advancing sustainable agricultural development in East Africa.

According to Acharyya (2022), by incentivizing private investments in CSA, governments can introduce fiscal measures (like tax-credits) for investments in renewable-energy, water-efficient irrigation and climate-resilient crops. These incentives are reported to align fiscal policies with climate objectives, encouraging private sector engagement and innovation.

Green finance instruments by financial institutions (such as “green-bonds, climate insurance products and weather derivatives”) are also found to be supporting CSA projects (Kiremu, 2020). These instruments provide tailored financial products that meet the specific CSA needs offering long-term financing and protection against climate risks (Mungai et al., 2021).

Governments and development partners should strengthen rural financial markets to improve access to finance for smallholder farmers and rural enterprises engaged in CSA. Expanding microfinance, cooperatives and mobile banking services, alongside promoting financial literacy, will enhance financial inclusion and resilience in rural areas (Mungai et al., 2021). By boosting rural finance, governments can unlock investment potential and promote sustainable agricultural development.

The review highlights successful case studies and innovative approaches demonstrating the effectiveness of CSA practices in East Africa, emphasizing the role of stakeholder engagement, partnerships, and knowledge dissemination in deriving CSA. It sheds light on crucial insights and findings imperative for steering East Africa toward climate-resilient and sustainable agriculture.

Key findings underscore the significance of climate change impacts in East Africa, manifested through rising extreme weather events, declining agricultural productivity and socio-economic vulnerabilities. In this instance, it becomes paramount to address challenges and leverage opportunities presented by CSA to ensure food security, livelihoods and environmental sustainability. The review projects CSA as a promising pathway, integrating adaptation, mitigation and resilience strategies to mitigate climate change impacts enhancing agricultural sustainability. This is particularly important considering the diversity within and between countries of the climate change vulnerable region. Moreover, the review identifies socio-economic disparities, prolonged conflicts, institutional barriers and policy gaps, as the major constraints hindering CSA adoption and applicability.

Consequently, the review brings forth the urgent need for targeted interventions. Actionable policy recommendations are also proposed to mainstream CSA into national and regional development agendas, alongside strategies for enhancing financing mechanisms and investment opportunities for CSA projects.

Emphasizing the importance of CSA addressing challenges and opportunities, the review highlights the urgency of accelerating the transition toward climate-resilient and sustainable agriculture in the region. By prioritizing CSA adoption, fostering collaborations and enacting supportive policies, the region can build a resilient agricultural sector capable of withstanding climate impacts while ensuring food security, livelihoods and environmental integrity for present and future generations. Finally, it is acknowledged that it is high time for concerted efforts to transform climate change challenges into opportunities; steering East Africa toward sustainable agricultural and subsequently toward realizing the region’s SDGs.