Climate change-related non-economic loss and damage in Bangladesh and Japan

Natural disasters have been causing socio-economic, cultural and environmental impacts around the world. According to the Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2014, 324 natural disasters have affected 140.8 million people worldwide in 2014 alone. Asia is most frequently hit by natural disasters, including climate-related disasters, wherein the region is accounted for 44.4 per cent of the disasters and 69.5 per cent of disaster victims in the world in 2014 (Guha-Sapir et al., 2015).

Weather-related events are reported to have been increasing in the past three decades (Warner et al., 2012). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that current climate change effects have changed the frequency, intensity and duration of extreme weather and climate events (Seneviratne et al., 2012). This has implications in terms of loss and damage (L&D) and non-economic loss and damage (NELD) in particular (UNFCCC, 2012a). NELD have the potential to fundamentally weaken a community’s resilience (Morrissey and Oliver-Smith, 2013), and, hence, it is necessary to recognize and manage the risk of NELD. Taking into view the importance of addressing the growing L&D in the context of climate change, the 2010 Cancun Agreements reached in the Conference of Parties on its sixteenth session (COP 16) under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recognized that it is necessary to understand and reduce L&D from extreme weather events and slow onset events (Decision 1/CP.16, paragraph 25). The COP 19 has established a Warsaw International Mechanism to address L&D particularly in vulnerable countries in 2013 (Decision 2/CP.19, plaragraph 1-17). Subsequently, the Paris Agreement adopted by the COP 21 in 2015 further reiterated the importance of addressing L&D and approved the continuation of Warsaw International Mechanism until its review in 2016 (Decision/CP.21, paragraph 48-52).

Keeping these issues in view, the main objective of this paper is to assess and compare the nature of NELD between developing and developed countries through case studies of Bangladesh and Japan, evaluate how NELD are addressed in these countries and provide ways forward for further improvement. It reviews the literature to examine the importance of NELD and looks into currently available methodologies and their limitations for assessing NELD in both disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA) fields. It then discusses two case studies covering Bangladesh and Japan to understand NELD from climate-related disasters, assesses the extent to which NELD have been reported in these countries and evaluates how national plans and policies have addressed NELD. Finally, it concludes with ways forward for integrating the aspects of NELD into decision-making at community, local and national levels. This paper benefits from the limited but rapidly emerging literature on the NELD aspects of DRR and CCA and a series of consultations that the authors had with local governments and NGOs in Bangladesh and Japan, including two workshops organized with DRR and CCA practitioners, government officials and researchers in Bangladesh and Japan. In the workshops, a list of NELD identified from literature was appraised in each country’s context, and key relevant indicators of NELD for each country were identified.

The discussion on L&D is not new among the DRR communities. Natural disasters have negative impacts on humanitarian, economic and ecological aspects. The native impacts are often the loss of life, human injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation (UNISDR, 2005).

Traditionally, disaster risk management (DRM) decisions have often been made based on the understanding of previous disaster impacts that reflect the underlying vulnerabilities of communities, regions and institutions. For example, relief agencies have often been advised to plan disaster relief based on the L&D reported in the previous disaster events in a given location (EMA, 2002). However, this traditional understanding of L&D will pose difficulties in a changing climate as less emphasis on NELD compared to economic loss and damage (ELD), limited attention to slow-onset events, and not often takes long-term view but rather the focus is to plan for that particular year based on the understanding from the recent past.

While the above understanding has been from the DRM literature, L&D in the context of climate change is defined as “negative effects of climate variability and climate change that people have not been able to cope with or adapt to” (Warner and Geest, 2013, p. 369). The Climate and Development Knowledge Network (2012) opined that L&D are residual negative impacts which would still happen after implementing adaptation efforts. L&D have also been interpreted as “the actual and/or potential manifestation of impacts associated with climate change in developing countries that negatively affect human and natural systems” (UNFCCC, 2012a, p. 3). There is an emerging importance of addressing NELD among the CCA community, as discussion on L&D has long been focused on economic aspects, such as loss of income and damage to property. NELD has been discussed in more detail in the subsequent section.

Climate change impacts can result in an increase in non-economic losses such as loss of social, health, cultural and environmental assets at the local and community level (UNISDR, 2015). There are several interpretations of non-economic losses. A common definition of NELD in the context of climate change has not been universally agreed yet. UNFCCC (2013, p. 3) referred the economic losses as “the loss of resources, goods and services that are commonly traded in markets” and that “market prices can be used to value economic losses”. Non-economic losses, on the other hand, are interpreted as the loss of those that are not commonly traded in markets (UNFCCC, 2013). Morrissey and Oliver-Smith (2013, p. 3) opined that “non-economic losses are those material goods and immaterial services which are lost through both direct and indirect climate change pathways” but which are ignored in the practices of market valuation. On the other hand, in the DRR field, non-economic losses can be intangible losses, as loss items cannot be bought and sold for dollars (EMA, 2002). Fischer (2010) interpreted that non-economic damages can be subjective and non-verifiable losses and could include pain and suffering, emotional distress, injury to reputation, loss of consortium and so on.

In many developing countries, NELD can be more significant than ELD. The quantified L&D from climate-related disasters may likely increase if NELD are considered (UNFCCC, 2012). Despite its importance, NELD have not been considered in the assessment and analyses of both climatic and non-climatic in nature and in designing insurance and compensation mechanisms (UNISDR, 2004; Hoffmaister and Stabinsky, 2012). NELD have also not been sufficiently reported in the most post-disaster reports and databases (Swiss Re, 2013). Part of the problem has been the difficulty in estimating the non-economic damages (Tol and Fankhauser, 1998). According to the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report, disaster losses have been underestimated because it is difficult to value and monetize NELD such as loss of human lives, cultural heritage and ecosystem services (IPCC, 2014). If NELD are not adequately addressed, it could negatively impact community resilience to climate-related disasters (Morrissey and Oliver-Smith, 2013). Hence, the UNFCCC has called for urgent attention to keep NELD at the center of climate change policies (UNFCCC, 2013).

The literature has referred NELD as losses of human lives, damages to livelihoods of people, territory, cultural heritage, ecosystem services and species extinction (Hoffmaister and Stabinsky, 2012; Morrissey and Oliver-Smith, 2013). UNFCCC (2013) has highlighted losses of life, health, displacement and human mobility, territory, cultural heritage, social capitals, indigenous/local knowledge, biodiversity and ecosystem services. In addition, L&D of education and local governance can also be considered as significant. Keeping the above understanding in view, NELD can be grouped into losses of human functions, social and cultural assets and environmental assets (UNISDR, 2015) (Table I). An effort has been made here to elaborate on some of NELD.

Loss of life is more likely to be directly caused by extreme weather events such as floods and landslides by torrential rainfall. Lives may be threatened by indirect L&D such as malnutrition through a food shortage resulting from decrease in crop yields because of slow onset events (UNFCCC, 2013). Loss of health can happen through injury, physical and mental illnesses (Hajat et al., 2003). Health is directly or indirectly affected by both extreme weather events and slow onset events. For instance, storms and floods can cause injury and mental illness such as severe metal trauma. Heatwaves can cause cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.

Existing evidence reveals that children are more susceptible to the adverse effects of environmental degradation (UNICEF, 2012). Children in developing countries in particular are likely to suffer loss of education such as discontinuity in education because of climate-related disasters. Research also indicates that about 65 per cent of children and women will be affected by climate-related disasters in the next decade (UNICEF, 2012).

Mobility is an important human function, and it is referred as “a continuum from completely voluntary movements to completely forced migrations” (Cutter et al., 2012, p. 300). Human mobility is affected by extreme weather events and slow onset events. For example, cyclones and floods can cause forced displacement. Desertification and ocean acidification can result in displacement. Humans are highly attached to their territory through place identity and place dependence and hence loss of territory could severely impact human functions (White et al., 2008; UNFCCC, 2013). Territory is more likely to be affected by slow onset events. For instance, inundation due to sea level rise, droughts, salinization, land degradation and desertification can make land uninhabitable.

Social capital is an important social asset and is referred to as “networks together with shared norms, values and understandings that facilitate co-operation within or among groups” (Keeley, 2007, p. 103). Social capital can be affected by climate-related disasters through breaking or stressing social network by displacement or resource shortages (UNFCCC, 2013) and through altering trust and reciprocity of people within communities (Fleming et al., 2014). Cultural heritages include intangible cultural heritages such as oral traditions, performing arts and rituals and tangible cultural heritages, such as historic buildings, monuments and artifacts, which are considered worthy of preservation for the future (UNESCO, 2015a, 2015b). Cultural heritages may have non-use value and form cultural identity and attachment to their community (Rizzo and Mignosa, 2013). Cultural heritage is affected by both extreme weather events and slow onset events. For example, cyclones and storms can destroy historical buildings. Drought has affected the World Heritage sites such as the Stone Circles of Senegambia (UNFCCC, 2013). Indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge that is unique to a particular cultural group or community, and it is often relevant to environment, agriculture and so on (The World Bank, 2015). Indigenous knowledge, which contributes to social cohesion and identity, is more likely to be affected by slow onset events especially in climate-sensitive areas such as Arctic, deserts and rainforests (UNFCCC, 2013). Increasing temperatures and desertification may make the traditional farming practices of indigenous people useless in Africa.

Local governments play an important role in addressing climate-related disasters at community level. However, local governments are also likely to suffer NELD that affects local governance through disruption of institutional network, putting pressure on institutional cohesion and coordination leading to institutional conflicts. Local governance is “the formulation and execution of collective action at the local level” (Shah and Shah, 2006, p. 1) to make communities self-governed. There have been very few comprehensive studies on NELD that local governments are likely to suffer as such impacts may not be easily quantified (Surminski et al., 2012).

Biodiversity constitute fundamental building blocks of ecosystems (UNEP, 2007). It has intrinsic value to people who wish it to exist there, regardless of its value to humans (Mace et al., 2012). Ecosystem is “a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit” (MA, 2003, p. 49). The supply of ecosystem services can be sensitive to changes in biodiversity (MA, 2003). Climate change can lead to a significant biodiversity loss (CBD, 2015). Biodiversity and ecosystem services are more likely to be affected by slow onset events as in the case of Central America, where increasing temperatures have made species such as endemic frogs to extinct (Dobson, 2007). Ocean acidification has negatively affected coral reefs (ISRS, 2008).

A comprehensive L&D assessment methodology in the context of climate change has not been well developed (Surminski et al., 2012). However, there are several approaches that are currently used in two schools of thoughts on DRR and CCA which are internationally applied and can be referred as relevant elements for the L&D assessment. The major difference among these approaches is whether the focus is on pre-disaster assessment or post-disaster assessment. Some approaches are useful for addressing NELD. For instance, the approaches used in DRR for assessing NELD include vulnerability assessments and disaster loss or damage assessments; the approaches used in CCA include climate change impact, adaptation and vulnerability assessments. Both DRR and CCA approaches include environmental impact assessments, strategic environmental assessments and environmental risk assessments (Table II). Economic valuations such as cost-benefit analysis, wealth and capital accounting, as well as non-market valuation, including stated and revealed preference methods, can be applied for assessing NELD (Champ et al., 2003).

Although various L&D assessments exist, they have several limitations. First of all, most existing L&D assessments heavily depend on physical and economic assessments of disaster impacts and often do not consider L&D such as social, environmental or psychological damages (Kelly, 2008). Important social and environmental L&D such as cultural heritage, environmental qualities, governance and trust cannot be easily quantified because they are difficult to estimate, which leads to underestimation of such losses (IPCC, 2014). Lack of well-developed methodologies for measuring and estimating L&D is leading to insufficient reporting of NELD in various national, regional and international disaster databases. In addition, L&D from climate-related disasters such as slow onset events, including sea-level rise and salinization, are not captured in the existing disaster loss databases such as emergency events database (EM-DAT). Moreover, these databases only reflect large loss events in the context of predefined loss thresholds without adequately accounting for smaller events (Surminski et al., 2012). The discussions in subsequent sections are focused on the post-disaster phase.

The Asia-Pacific region is expected to suffer serious climate-related disasters and countries such as Bangladesh and Japan with long coastline are experiencing more L&D from climate-related disasters (Rabbani et al., 2013; MOEJ, 2015). It is assumed that the type and extent of NELD would depend on the nature of disasters and inherent socio-economic and development factors such as poverty level. Here, a case study has been presented to identify commonalities and differences in NELD between Bangladesh and Japan representing developing and developed countries in Asia. This section looks into different types of NELD from cyclones, droughts and salinity intrusion in Bangladesh and typhoons in Japan. NELD are broadly categorized into those related to human functions, sociocultural assets and environmental assets. These three categories are particularly important to both the countries because these have been found as key factors in the recovery during the consultations carried out by the authors. Then, it explores the extent to which NELD have been reported in both the countries and presents an analysis of the extent to which national plans and policies have addressed NELD.

Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries to natural hazards. The major disasters include floods, cyclones, droughts, tidal surges, tornadoes, earthquakes, river erosion, fire, high arsenic contents of ground water, water logging, water and soil salinity (DDM, 2014). It experiences climate-related disasters almost every year which cause heavy L&D of life and property. Most climate-related disasters in Bangladesh are likely to originate from the south, i.e. the Bay of Bengal and the adjoining North Indian Ocean, as these water sources are major causes for tropical cyclones, storm surges, floods, coastal erosion, monsoon wind and droughts (Ali, 1999).

Bangladesh is especially vulnerable to cyclones because of its location at the triangular shaped head of the Bay of Bengal, the sea-level geography of its coastal area, its high population density and the lack of coastal protection systems (Haque et al., 2012). Cyclones and associated storm surges frequently hit the coastal areas of Bangladesh during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon monsoon seasons (DDM, 2014). Approximately, 40 per cent of the total global storm surges are recorded in Bangladesh (Haque et al., 2012). Bangladesh has suffered serious adverse impacts from more frequent and intense droughts and increasing temperature because of climate variability and non-availability of surface water resources (Selvaraju and Baas, 2007). Bangladesh is affected by major country-wide droughts every five years with the northwestern areas of the country being particularly vulnerable to droughts. Droughts have caused L&D to agriculture production, land, livestock population, employment and health. In addition, salinity intrusion is one of the most serious problems in the coastal regions of Bangladesh. The coastal area covers about 20 per cent of the country, and about 53 per cent of the coastal areas are affected by different degrees of salinity (Haque, 2006). Severe storm surges and sea level rise have aggravated the salinity during recent years (Rasel et al., 2013).

Future climate change projection indicates that annual mean temperature will increase by 1.4°C and 2.4°C, annual mean precipitation will increase by 6 and 10 per cent and annual sea level will rise by 32 and 88 cm by 2050 and 2100, respectively (MOEF, 2005). The future impacts are expected to further increase the frequency and intensity of disasters such as cyclones, drought and salinity intrusion with associated increase in ELD and NELD.

Cyclones have caused several NELD in Bangladesh (Table III). Haque et al. (2012) have shown several direct and indirect NELD to human health, livelihoods and sociocultural assets from cyclones in Bangladesh. In terms of human health, cyclones have affected access to drinking water and food and have increased the transmission risk of infectious diseases (e.g. diarrhea, hepatitis, malaria, dengue, pneumonia and eye infections) and skin diseases, as well as waterborne diseases, because of the lack of safe drinking water (Cash et al., 2013). Cyclones have aggravated surface water contamination by saline intrusion and poor sanitation systems, which are common in coastal regions of Bangladesh. They also compounded the malnutrition of children because of the L&D of crops and reduced access to fish (Haque et al., 2012). Regarding the metal health, reports indicate cyclones causing post-traumatic stress and depression in the post-disaster period (Krug et al., 1998; Paul et al., 2010). Cyclones have caused significant population displacement in the past and have often been associated with the increase in suicide and crime rates and adverse pregnancy outcomes (Buekens et al., 2006; Paul et al., 2010).

Droughts are known to have caused several NELD of human functions, sociocultural and environmental assets in Bangladesh (Table III). Selvaraju and Baas (2007) has highlighted several NELD from droughts in Bangladesh. Decline in crop production due to droughts has resulted in increased human health and nutrition risks (Hossain et al., 2005). Droughts have caused major deterioration in human health with impact on drinking water sources, food security and incidence of insect pests lead to substantial increases in vector-borne diseases (Slenning, 2010). In addition, increased summer heat and humidity have caused problems of dehydration, especially affecting women, the elderly and children (Keim, 2008). Decline in water quality has led to greater risk of waterborne diseases in most areas (Rose et al., 2001). Furthermore, droughts have led to reduced yield and decrease in income for farmers resulting in population migration (Reuveny, 2007). Intense droughts and increasing temperatures are known to have significant negative impacts on land degradation, distribution, growth and reproduction of fish (Matthews and Marsh-Matthews, 2003; Reed et al., 2007).

Salinization of soil and aquifers can result in serious NELD of human functions, sociocultural and environmental assets (Table III). Abedin et al. (2013) have identified several direct and indirect NELD from salinity intrusion in Bangladesh. In terms of human health, drinking saline water and contaminated water are reported to have caused various waterborne diseases such as diarrhea and cholera, skin diseases, kidney stone, rheumatism, pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension in pregnant women (Krishnan, 2009; Lara et al., 2009; Paul et al., 2010; Khan et al., 2011; Nasreen et al., 2013). Furthermore, salinity has caused increased infestation of insect and diseases in field crops in the coastal regions (Gain et al., 2007). In terms of sociocultural aspects, salinity intrusion can accelerate women hardship as women are less engaged in shrimp farming which they are used to do at nearby coastal rivers and marshes (Akter, 2009). Salinity problems can also cause social consequences such as harassment of women because salinity water hurts young women’s skins and the increase in conflicts and disputes between rice producers who suffer losses and damages from salinity and shrimp producers who benefit from salinity (Abedin et al., 2013). In addition, salinity intrusion has brought significant threat to food security and caused farmers to relocate in search of other work to feed their families (Rasel et al., 2013). Salinity intrusion has affected ecosystems such as the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world, which represents heritage and biodiversity and holds abundant fish resources (Islam and Gnauck, 2008). Salinity has affected fish growth since fresh water fish juveniles cannot survive under high salinity levels (Selvaraju and Baas, 2007).

The Department of Disaster Management under the Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh has published national report on disasters which provides an overview of both natural and human induced disasters in Bangladesh (DDM, 2014). This report records ELD of disasters such as the number of damaged houses, bridges, roads, schools and embankments, the area flooded and the area of crop affected. This report also includes some data on NELD such as the number of households and people affected, the number of people killed, injured and taken to temporary shelters. However, the report does not take into consideration NELD of sociocultural and environmental assets that are widely reported to occur and presented in Table III. As a result, decision-making based on the limited set of data being collected may not lead to holistic risk reduction.

The disaster data are first collected from Union Parishads and various departmental officers led by the Union Parishad Chairman and Upazila Disaster Management Committee at the local level. Form-D (Form for Assessment of Damage and Loss) is filled, and the Upazila Nirbahi Officer reports the data to the Emergency Operation Center at the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management through the Deputy Commissioner within 24 h after a disaster happens. The Form-D records both ELD and NELD. However, similar to national disaster report, this form does not take into account the L&D of cultural and environmental assets.

The Bangladesh’s Disaster Management Bureau, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management has developed the National Plan for Disaster Management for 2010-2015. It is a long-term and comprehensive plan on disaster management for addressing natural and human induced hazards, including CCA issues based on the global and regional commitment of the Government of Bangladesh. The plan refers to disaster management plans of districts, Upazilas, unions and Paurashavas/city corporations. These plans describe counter-measures in the event of a disaster to address NELD of human functions such as prompt response and relief, provision of emergency medical services, trauma counseling and operation of disaster shelters. These plans also mention resumption of educational institutions and restoration of livelihood for affected people, especially the disabled, elderly, women and children. This is pertinent to addressing NELD of sociocultural and environmental assets. Upon reviewing these national and local level plans, it was concluded that these plans provide low to moderate emphasis on elements of NELD mostly through addressing social elements of DRM.

Japan is prone to natural disasters because of its topography and climate. It is located in the Pacific Ring of Fire and in the Asian monsoon zone, one of the most pluvial areas in the world. The average annual precipitation is 1,690 mm, which is twice as much as the world average annual precipitation of 810 mm (MLIT, 2014). Because of its geographical and geological characteristics, Japan has suffered countless earthquake, typhoons and other types of disasters (JICA, 2015). In particular, typhoons and accompanying wind and flood related disasters have occurred year after year. They are expected to increase in their frequency and intensity because of climate change impacts (MOEJ, 2015). During the past few years, there are several major typhoons, and the Typhoon No.12 in 2011 (Asian name: Typhoon Talas) particularly caused significant L&D to Japan and has contributed significant lessons for improving DRM in the country. During the typhoon in the Kii Peninsula, one of the most typhoon and intense rainfall prone areas in Japan, the total amount of the precipitation exceeded 1,000 mm (JMA, 2011). The record-breaking heavy rainfall has caused landslides, inundation and river flooding and resulted in significant economic damages and human casualties. Wakayama prefecture in particular has recorded the highest deaths of 56, out of total 82 deaths in all the prefectures in the country in 2011 (FDMA, 2012a).

Typhoons have caused NELD of human functions and sociocultural assets in Japan (Table III). People are injured when a disaster occurs and during post-disaster period, including evacuation, relief and rescue operations (Paul et al., 2010). Typhoons have been reported to exacerbate infectious diseases such as exanthema because of being submerged in the water for a long time and poor condition of hygiene because of disrupted water supply and insufficient air conditioning in evacuation centers (Wakayama Medical University, 2012). Typhoons have also caused mental and psychological stresses such as post-traumatic stress disorder in the past (Shaw, 2014). To address metal stresses from the 2011 Typhoon No.12, the Wakayama prefecture has established telephone counseling hotlines for metal care and implemented door to door mental counselling at evacuation centers and homes by psychiatrists and psychiatric social workers (Wakayama Prefecture, 2011).

Typhoons are known to displace people in Japan. The Typhoon No.12 resulted in designation of warning zone based on the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act where residents have to be displaced, and this affected 295 people (152 households) in the Kinki region (MLIT, 2013). In addition, typhoons have affected place attachment because families with lands and houses were ruined. Typhoons in the past have caused extensive damage to cultural heritage in Japan. The Agency for Cultural Affairs of Japan reported that a total of 36 cultural heritages in 8 prefectures were damaged from Typhoon No.12 in 2011 (The Shikoku Shimbun, 2011). In Wakayama prefecture, historic sites and cultural heritages such as Nachi Taisha Shrine, registered as a World Heritage Site, were affected by Typhoon No.12 induced landslide and flooding. This led to a damage to reputation with decrease in tourists to these heritage sites (MLIT, 2012). Typhoons have also had social consequences such as increase in conflicts and disputes between affected people in evacuation centers, disagreements in the Bon festival between affected and not affected communities and increase in school dropouts (based on the interviews with community leaders who live in communities in Wakayama Prefecture affected by Typhoon No.12, in October, 2014). Typhoon No.12 damaged 14 ha of forest area in Japan (MAFF, 2013) and may have resulted in an unspecified amount of biodiversity and ecosystem loss as typhoons are more likely to cause ecological disturbance (Nakashizuka, 2009).

The Japan’s Statistics Bureau under the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication (MIC) publishes national disaster statistics on natural disasters, including typhoons. The disaster statistics mainly record ELD of natural disasters such as damage amount (million yen), number of damaged houses and non-residential buildings, area (ha) of flooded fields and number of damaged schools, bridges and rivers (Statistics Bureau, 2016). Some data related to NELD such as the number of households and people affected and number of people killed, missing and injured have also been reported. However, the disaster statistics has included more categories of ELD than NELD. In addition, the statistics does not report L&D of sociocultural and environmental assets as in the case of Bangladesh.

Municipal governments are generally required to collect disaster data and report the data to prefectural governments, which then report to the Fire and Disaster Management Agency (FDMA) under MIC and other concerned government ministries as appropriate (MIC, 2014). Municipal governments create three necessary documents when a disaster occurs: the Disaster Summary within 30 min after the disaster is recognized; the Disaster Damage Summary on a continuous basis; and the Disaster Report within 20 days after the emergency response (FDMA, 2001, 2012a). Same as national disaster statistics, these documents include more indicators of ELD than NELD.

The Japan’s Central Disaster Management Council has developed the Disaster Management Basic Plan under the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, a comprehensive and long-term master plan for disaster reduction activities (Central Disaster Management Council, 2015). The plan consists of various counter-measures to natural disasters, including earthquakes and typhoons, and accident disasters, including nuclear and forest fires at each phase of prevention and preparedness, emergency response and recovery and rehabilitation. At the phases of prevention and preparedness, the plan stipulates the counter-measures to address NELD of human functions such as preparation of rescue supplies and first-aid by municipalities, preparation of emergency medical care supplies and designation of disaster base hospitals and designation of evacuation centers by municipalities. At the phase of emergency response, the plan describes the counter-measures such as implementation of rescue activities and medical care, including mental care and setting up and operation of evacuation centers and temporary houses for affected people. At the phase of recovery and rehabilitation, the plan stresses the support for continuity of community for affected people and town planning with environmental conservation and recreation space in community as well as support for mental care and securing of living places for affected people. This is relevant to addressing NELD of sociocultural and environmental assets.

As presented above, NELD in both the countries show some commonalities and differences (Table III). Comparing NELD from cyclones in Bangladesh and typhoons in Japan, both cases recognized NELD of human functions such as death, injury, infectious diseases, mental diseases and sociocultural assets such as displacement and social disruption. On the other hand, there can be socio-economic vulnerabilities inherent in developing countries related to economic status, social infrastructure and poverty level, malnutrition and crime that could exacerbate NELD as indicated by the Bangladesh case. Looking at cyclones, droughts and salinity intrusion in Bangladesh, there are common consequences for NELD such as health deterioration from water-borne diseases and social disruptions. Environmental assets have been affected by droughts and salinity intrusion.

From the national disaster reports and statistics of Bangladesh and Japan, it is evident that both countries have reported more ELD indicators than NELD, and both failed to take into consideration the L&D of sociocultural and environmental assets. Considering how NELD are addressed in national disaster plans and policies, both Bangladesh and Japan’s disaster plans have made insignificant emphasis on addressing NELD of sociocultural and environmental assets. However, Japan’s national disaster management plan enlists several countermeasures that could have significant impact in addressing NELD than what Bangladesh’s plan could do. The less emphasis given to NELD elements in national disaster databases can result in underestimation of the actual total L&D leading to insufficient relief and recovery, limited progress in DRR and a lack of information for decision-making by practitioners and policymakers on DRR and CCA in both the countries. Challenges to collect information related to NELD are that the importance of addressing NELD in social recovery is not properly understood at national and sub-national levels, data collection and measurement frameworks for NELD are not well established and there is a limited capacity for stakeholders to understand NELD information in decision-making. Therefore, there is a need for public awareness and capacity building on concepts and approaches involved in NELD, including assessment tools to assist various stakeholders to effectively integrate NELD aspects into their interventions.

Key messages from these observations are that although existing literature have recognized several types of NELD, it is important to identify key NELD indicators that need greater attention in both developing and developed country contexts. It is necessary for studies to explore the actual total L&D by further understanding, identifying and measuring NELD, as well as developing adequate assessment frameworks and methods for addressing NELD. Furthermore, the nature of NELD can be different, depending on local, regional and socio-economic characteristics. Hence, it is essential for local governments to implement interim assessments of NELD considering the local characteristics. Moreover, the central governments are required to present the unified guidelines for local governments to assist in the process. Finally, practitioners and policymakers on DRR and CCA are needed to consider NELD in their decision-making and identify appropriate counter-measures based on the evidence presented from the statistics and research.

Finally, there are some implications to NELD from existing international frameworks on DRR and CCA. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 aims to significantly reduce NELD such as losses of sociocultural and environmental assets and ELD. The priority actions to achieve the goal includes systematic evaluation of disaster L&D and understanding of disaster exposures, vulnerabilities and impacts to health, education, cultural heritages, sociocultural and environmental assets (UNISDR, 2015). The results from the case studies above showed that there is a significant need to further consider NELD, in particular sociocultural and environmental assets. Thus, the Sendai Framework will need to play significant role in increasing awareness for addressing these issues.

The L&D from climate-related disasters are expected to increase especially in the vulnerable parts of the Asia-Pacific region. Though the L&D are not a new concept in the DRR field, the L&D in the context of climate change needs specific attention and renewed interest both for comprehensive DRR and CCA, especially from the point of view of addressing NELD. For various stakeholders to address NELD, there is a need for development of comprehensive methodologies and tools that DRR and CCA stakeholders can use for decision-making at various stages of DRR and CCA. Existing assessment methodologies in DRR and CCA fields can be useful for addressing NELD to a limited extent, whereas there are some limitations.

The Bangladesh and Japan case studies have revealed more commonalities than differences in the types of NELD because of natural disasters and in the way they are measured and addressed. Both countries have relatively well-developed data-collection mechanisms at the local level to collect and use the data for decision-making often for the purpose of relief and rehabilitation. In addition, both countries have included more data categories related to ELD than NELD in their disaster reports and statistics. This can lead to underestimation of actual total losses and damages and ineffective decision-making. Therefore, it is essential to explore practical and verifiable indicators of NELD, which can be reflected in disaster databases, statistics and reports. This makes it possible for practitioners and policymakers to take into account NELD of their decision-making at community, local, national and international levels. Both countries have also given more emphasis on NELD of human functions than sociocultural and environmental assets in their disaster reports and statistics and national disaster plans. There is a need for the Sendai Framework and other emerging global framework for CCA under UNFCCC to play an important role in increasing awareness for addressing these issues and contribute to close linkage between DRR and CCA. As a next step, it is important to advance our understanding on NELD and to develop an integrated assessment framework for addressing NELD by referring to existing approaches from DRR and CCA fields.