Bidding beyond the game: the legacies of (un)successful sports event bids on host locations

Major sporting events (MSEs), with the considerable (financial) commitments made by the host cities and countries, are often a matter of public debate, raising the question of long-term impacts. Despite event owners’ such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC) struggles in finding hosts for future major events in Western countries, there has been an increased effort by major emerging markets, including BRICS member nations, putting themselves on the global stage by bidding and hosting MSEs of all kinds (Nite et al., 2024). Thus, there is competition among bidding cities striving to outbid preceding hosts. As MSEs expand, so too has the concept of legacies. Legacy planning and implementation can be seen as an ongoing process in the event life cycle (Parent and Ruetsch, 2021) meaning that legacies may occur even before events take place (Preuss, 2015), already in the bid stage of an MSE.

Existing research related to event bids primarily concentrates on a bid’s outcome, such as whether a city wins or loses, giving less attention to the benefits and impacts generated during the process. Unsuccessful bids for hosting events have been noted as possessing not only legacies themselves, but the potential for leveraging benefits afterward (Bason and Grix, 2018). Despite this acknowledgment, comprehensive studies comparing the legacies of successful and unsuccessful bids remain limited.

Understanding the full bidding experience requires a comprehensive approach, focusing on the entire process. Interest is increasing in analyzing bid legacies, which are the impacts initiated by candidate cities before site selection, expanding the legacy concept to early event stages. Some cities use bidding to gain international recognition or domestic benefits, not solely to host the event (Lauermann, 2016).

Current literature mainly examines major event legacies for their international impact. However, it is worth noting that there are numerous smaller-scale sports events where the concept of legacy is also applicable (Azzali, 2017). Thomson et al. (2019) suggest that maximizing legacy outcomes can be achieved through effective planning, which involves engaging key stakeholders and developing integrated long-term strategies. This is especially true for sports events undergoing a bidding process over extended periods and not held at fixed locations (de Nooij and van den Berg, 2018; Parent and Ruetsch, 2021).

This paper aims to bridge the research gap between hosted event legacies and the impact of ongoing or unsuccessful bids on cities, by exploring the following research question: How do event organizers and bidders perceive the positive and negative legacies of successful, ongoing, and unsuccessful sports event bids for potential host cities, and what implications do these perceptions have for future bidding strategies? It identifies how cities can strategically and advantageously utilize the bid process, highlight the legacies developed during the bidding phase, and examines their long-term impacts. Additionally, the study considers the negative legacies associated with unsuccessful bids and their implications for future bidding strategies.

MSEs are described as temporary projects occurring over short periods of time with significant long-term impact on the host city, driving urban development (Lauermann, 2016). MSEs are typically large-scale, international sports competitions attracting significant media attention, large audiences, and substantial economic impact (Müller, 2015). Research shows MSEs often prompt urban and transportation development projects, with bids influencing political power for driving growth. MSEs are widely seen as catalysts for change, impacting society, culture, and sports. Scholars agree on their role in driving development (Lauermann, 2016; Zimbalist, 2010). Previously, the bidding process alone has demonstrated significant potential to shape urban policies and political agendas. For example, cities vying to host events, even if unsuccessful, have experienced lasting impacts on infrastructure, civic engagement and policy priorities (Bason and Grix, 2023; Leopkey and Parent, 2012). The concept of legacy extends beyond the actual occurrence of events to include the intentional and unintentional consequences of the bidding stage itself (Gratton and Preuss, 2008). This includes early-stage infrastructure investments, greater international visibility, and stronger political networks, even in cases of unsuccessful bids. Positive effects can also be strategically leveraged, allowing cities to capitalize on opportunities, irrespective of the bid’s outcome (Bason and Grix, 2018, 2023).

The legacy concept in MSEs has historical roots, particularly in Olympic bidding, where it became a formal consideration as early as 1956 (Leopkey and Parent, 2012). Although legacy considerations were present in practice, academic interest in the topic emerged prominently in the 1990s, reflecting broader societal expectations of accountability and sustainable development (Chappelet, 2012). Literature highlights the complexity of the legacy phenomenon, leading to diverse opinions and disputes over definitions and terminology (Chappelet, 2012; Preuss, 2007; Thomson et al., 2013). This complexity stems from the multi-dimensional nature of sports events, making it challenging to categorize legacy types uniformly (Ma and Kaplanidou, 2017). Legacy includes both tangible and intangible outcomes, including infrastructure developments, social and cultural impacts, and environmental considerations each with the potential to produce positive or negative long-term effects (Ma and Kaplanidou, 2017; Preuss, 2007). For example, the Sydney 2000 Olympics showcased significant tangible legacies through venue construction, while perceived intangible legacies like enhanced national pride were harder to quantify (Macrury and Poynter, 2008). The ongoing challenges in consistently categorizing legacy types highlight the need for nuanced evaluation frameworks (Koenigstorfer et al., 2019).

In this study we differentiate between tangible and perceived legacies. Tangible legacies refer to concrete, measurable changes, such as newly constructed venues or improved transportation networks. These legacies are often physical and provide clear indicators of an MSEs impact on the host city (Preuss, 2015). Contrastingly, perceived legacies capture the expectations or anticipated benefits from various stakeholder groups. These include envisioned improvements in international reputation or community pride, which, while meaningful, remain less quantifiable and often may not fully materialize post-event (Bason and Grix, 2023; Schnitzer et al., 2017). Recognizing these distinctions is crucial for comprehensively assessing the legacy outcomes of both successful and unsuccessful bids.

Additionally, legacy should not be intermixed with leveraging. Leveraging represents the deliberate and intentional effort by host cities to capitalize on MSE opportunities for long-term benefits such as economic growth or urban revitalization (Chalip, 2004). In contrast, legacy includes all efforts, both planned and unplanned, that continue post-event. For example, while theLondon 2012 Olympics incorporated strategies to leverage opportunities for urban regeneration, its legacy also encompassed unplanned social and environmental effects (Girginov and Hills, 2008). This study examines legacy in its broadest sense, addressing how legacy frameworks can inform cities in strategizing and planning for both immediate and unforeseen outcomes of the bidding process itself (Parent and Ruetsch, 2021).

Legacies of MSEs can be short-term or long-term, including expected and unintended consequences, influenced by various factors such as infrastructure, media exposure, and political priorities (Knott and Tinaz, 2022). By expanding the scope to include both favorable and unfavorable legacies, we aim to capture a more holistic view of MSE impact and provide a more nuanced understanding of how the bid process can serve as a catalyst for city development, regardless of the bid’s outcome (Preuss, 2015).

Scholarly literature offers different frameworks assessing legacies such as the legacy cube introduced by Preuss (2007) and its adaptation (Preuss, 2015). Furthermore, Horne (2007) offers insights into understanding the complexities of MSEs, enhancing our discussion of legacy in this study. Horne identifies four critical dimensions related to the economic impact (“Know the Costs and Benefits”), political implications (“Know the Political Uses and Abuses”), social consequences (“Know the Social and Cultural Impacts”) and environmental concerns (“Know the Environmental Impact”) of MSEs. While Horne’s framework provides a structured way to analyze the various dimensions of MSEs, it is important to contextualize these insights within the scope of this study. Our research on the legacies of successful, ongoing, and unsuccessful bids focuses on understanding the complexities and potential outcomes of the bidding process itself, extending beyond the hosting of events. Considering Horne’s framework alongside our study offers a way to examine both the direct impacts of hosting major events and the “unknown” elements emerging during the bidding process. While the known costs and benefits (economic impact) of a bid can be predicted, the actual financial outcomes and long-term effects often remain uncertain until after the event, justifying the need to plan for potential unknowns. Politically, events can bolster agendas, but the bidding process often involves unforeseen maneuvering and consequences, revealing how cities negotiate the political landscape. Social consequences of bidding, including increased community engagement or disruptions from bid-related developments, align with the identification of the complexities in managing these outcomes. Environmental concerns related to bidding also present both anticipated and unforeseen effects, as real-world outcomes introduce challenges and opportunities for sustainability. Horne’s emphasis on “knowable” impacts provides a critical perspective for cities to anticipate potential legacies and plan accordingly, preparing for both known and unknown factors. This enhances our analysis of how bids – successful or otherwise – can leverage these insights for long-term benefits. While the framework enriches our understanding of the various dimensions of MSEs, it complements our primary focus on the specific legacies and impacts associated with the bidding process.

Bidding for events involves competing committees nominating host cities, a process spanning years, with the event’s scale affecting groundwork duration. A visual representation (refer to Figure 1) outlines the specific stages involved in the bid selection process for a sports event. These individual stages may vary based on the distinct specifications and demands of each unique event.

The planning and establishment of positive legacies represent a fundamental principle when bidding for sports events (Scheu and Preuss, 2018). As advocated by Preuss (2007), the concept of legacy should already be integrated into the bid city’s strategy. Evaluating and strategically planning for a major sports event bid requires a thorough assessment of the candidate city. This assessment often involves conducting a feasibility study, analyzing the city’s capabilities, suitability for the chosen event, available resources, and compliance with relevant requirements (Parent and Ruetsch, 2021). As revealed by Schnitzer et al. (2017), often MSE bidders do not have a clear, written strategy in terms of using MSEs for achieving overarching goals of destinations. Bidding related expenditure has been consistently increasing. This trend is coupled with the escalating complexity of prerequisites (Masterman, 2008). Genuine costs tied to orchestrating MSEs are frequently miscalculated (Zimbalist, 2010), with certain expenses such as security and preparation charges often overlooked (de Nooij and van den Berg, 2018). Examples include the 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics and the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa (Du Plessis and Maennig, 2009).

Differentiating between legacies arising directly from the bid process and those resulting from hosting the event is crucial. Legacies from the bid process include early-stage infrastructure investments, media engagement, and strengthened political networks, which can provide long-term benefits regardless of the event’s outcome (Bason and Grix, 2023). In contrast, legacies from hosting the event typically involve post-event impacts, such as tourism and increased economic activity.

Event legacies have been well-studied, but there is a notable research gap regarding legacies of unsuccessful event bids, resulting in limited exploration in existing literature (Leopkey et al., 2021). Even when a bid for an MSE such as the Olympic Games is not successful, it has been noted that enduring legacies can still emerge for the candidate cities, resembling in many respects the legacies left by cities that actually host the event (Bason and Grix, 2018). The IOC underscores the importance of bid legacies, as evidenced by its stipulation for candidate cities to address the potential benefits of bidding for the Olympic Games, regardless of the bid outcome. This directive is manifested in the question posed in the Candidature Questionnaire “What will be the benefits of bidding for the Olympic Games for your city/region, irrespective of the outcome of the bid?” This query was incorporated into the candidature questionnaires for various Olympic events, including the 2016, 2020, and 2024 Summer Games, as well as the 2018 and 2022 Winter Games candidature questionnaires (Bason and Grix, 2018). These outcomes can yield both positive and negative consequences (Bason and Grix, 2023; Leopkey et al., 2021).

Successful bids boost city prestige, enhance collaboration, secure funding, initiate projects, and advance expertise; unsuccessful bids can generate negative legacies. These downsides encompass forgone opportunities, diminished revenue, strained relationships, and disillusionment within the bidding cities (Leopkey et al., 2021). MSE bids can spark opposition to hosting, as seen with the group “No Games Chicago”, which was established to contest the city’s 2016 Olympic Games bid. This, theoretically, could negatively affect a location’s capacity to bid for future events (Rundio and Heere, 2016). In such cases, there is no guarantee of image improvement.

Just as successfully hosted events can be utilized to catalyze favorable results, the process of event bidding itself can also be harnessed for positive impacts (Bason and Grix, 2023). Bid leveraging, like strategic event management, involves deliberate efforts to cultivate positive outcomes. By strategically utilizing the bid process, host cities can attain economic and branding benefits. This approach has the potential to stimulate increased visitor expenditure, extend visit duration, circulate spending within the local economy, and facilitate opportunities for business networking. Notably, the bid process itself emerges as a pivotal resource that can be effectively leveraged. When bid leveraging is systematically orchestrated with meticulous planning and clear objectives, stakeholders collaborate to achieve intended outcomes. Numerous instances exist where cities have adeptly harnessed the bid process to generate economic advantages and advance urban development (Bason and Grix, 2018).

Recently, there has been a noticeable decline in the volume of submitted bids, with fewer locations demonstrating an eagerness to participate in the process (Koenigstorfer and Preuss, 2018). An increasing number of cities or regions initiate the bid process by furnishing essential documentation but subsequently retracting their candidacies (Koenigstorfer and Preuss, 2018). Notable instances include the cases of Budapest, Rome, and Hamburg, all of which withdrew from bidding for the 2024 Olympics (Thomson et al., 2019). Along with the 2014 introduction of the Olympic Agenda 2020, the current candidature process has been revolutionized and reshaped (International Olympic Committee, 2023). The aim was to make the procedure more flexible, efficient, and less cost-intensive for potential hosts. Also, the sustainability of the Games should be enhanced through joint bids and thus hosting events in multiple cities, regions, or countries (Byun et al., 2020). The Olympic host selection shifted towards informal exchanges and targeted dialogs between candidates and the IOC, focusing on vision, purpose, and legacy. IOC members make final decisions based on executive board recommendations. This approach led to selecting Gangwon for the 2024 Winter Youth Olympics and Milano Cortina for the 2026 Winter Olympics (International Olympic Committee, 2023).

The research utilized a two-step qualitative approach, involving an online questionnaire and subsequent semi-structured expert interviews to answer the research question. Bidding cities’ selection hinged on submitting official bids to relevant international federations. The study engaged sixteen experienced experts in organizing or hosting major sports events, ensuring theoretical saturation (Hennink and Kaiser, 2022). After interviewing all experts, no new or significant themes emerged, indicating sufficient data collection to comprehensively address the research question.

Experts were invited via email to partake in the study, with assurances of confidentiality and data anonymization. They were selected from private networks and personal connections, ensuring a broad range of perspectives. The study required participants with substantial experience (see Table 1) in organizing or hosting major sports events. Each participant held a senior role in event organization, bringing expertise gained through years of involvement in various sports events, including leadership positions within organizing committees. A snowball sampling technique was utilized, where initial participants were prompted to recommend additional experts, enhancing the diversity and comprehensiveness of the sample. The questionnaire was programmed using SoSci Survey (SoSci Survey, V.3.3.00, 2022) and was available in German, Italian, and English, to ensure accessibility for all participants by matching the primary languages of participants’ national contexts, ensuring effective and comfortable communication. The questionnaire was developed in German and then translated into the other languages. The authors, as native speakers, ensured the accuracy and appropriateness of the translations, thus no external translation authority was needed.

To gather initial insights the survey included questions on event participation, roles, and expected legacies. This phased approach, starting with an open-ended questionnaire followed by semi-structured interviews, provided experts with ample reflection time before discussing their experiences and observations in detail. The questionnaire was designed to explore various facets of legacy, including planned legacies, legacies emerging from the bidding process itself, realized legacies, and negative legacies. Addressing these distinct areas aimed to capture how members of bidding committees planned for or adapted to different legacy outcomes. The study examined the range of sports event bids encompassing both successes and failures. Four bid types were chosen: successful bids that secured the event, unsuccessful bids, bids that achieved success after multiple bid attempts, and ongoing bids currently in the bidding process. For each bid type category, four experts were chosen. This approach enables refined bid-event legacy analysis. Notably, international impactful events were chosen based on scale and regional influence. Experts represented by expert IDs remain anonymous with positions in bidding and/or organizing committee interview dates and durations listed in Table 1.

Comparing different types of bids allows for an understanding of how various bid outcomes impact legacies. This comparison helps identify whether certain legacies are unique to successful bids or if unsuccessful and ongoing bids can also yield significant benefits. This comparative approach provides insights into the strategic value of bidding for cities and contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the broader impacts of the bid process.

Post-questionnaire, experts were contacted via email to schedule interviews. Questionnaire data was analyzed and prepared for guided semi-structured interviews. The translation process in this study followed established best practices in cross-language qualitative research, ensuring conceptual equivalence and cultural appropriateness at every stage (Santos et al., 2015; Yunus et al., 2022). The original interview guideline was created in German and later translated into Italian and English upon confirming participation from non-German-speaking experts. Translations were conducted by bilingual authors familiar with both the subject matter and the sociocultural contexts of the participants, ensuring accuracy and trustworthiness of the materials. To ensure ease of communication, interviews were conducted in the participants’ preferred language – German, Italian, or English. All interviews were conducted via Zoom, spanning June to November 2022, lasting 20–35 min. The interviews were based on the results and input of the participants from the initial questionnaire and allowed immediately to enter into the topic and thus lasted shorter than typically qualitative interviews. The format facilitated a discussion-oriented approach, where the authors could delve deeper into the specific points raised by participants in their questionnaire responses. Consent-obtained recordings were transcribed verbatim in their original language and all transcripts were subsequently translated into English for analysis. Translations of interview transcripts were handled by the authors. The translations focused on achieving conceptual equivalence rather than literal translation, carefully addressing idiomatic expressions and cultural nuances, as recommended by Santos et al. (2015) and Yunus et al. (2022). This translation process included reviews by the authors, ensuring consistency and reliability. Participant validation was incorporated, as transcripts were shared with interviewees for confirmation before coding began. Content analysis and thematic coding began after the translations were completed and were performed using MAXQDA (MAXQDA, V.2022.2, 2022). To ensure consistency, a single researcher conducted all coding. The study employed Mayring’s (2014) qualitative content analysis framework, integrating both inductive and deductive coding to systematically categorize data. Inductive coding allowed themes to emerge naturally from the data, while deductive coding was based on predefined categories derived from the literature and research objectives. Six main thematic areas were identified: infrastructure, networks, sports, economy, sustainability, and image. A coding guide ensured consistency, enhancing transparency and replicability. In the second analysis cycle, subcodes such as construction projects, sports infrastructure, housing, image identification, media awareness, and popularity refined these six main categories for greater nuance. While the coding process focused on identifying recurring themes, it ensured broad thematic coverage, offering a robust framework for analyzing the diversity of legacies. This approach prioritized thematic saturation and contextual depth, consistent with qualitative research practices (Mayring, 2014).

The results presented here reflect the perceptions and experiences of the interviewees. Three key themes emerged: (1) urban and sports infrastructure, (2) media, international exposure, and image enhancement, (3) political and sports-related networks. Challenges during bidding and negative aspects of hosting are outlined. Experts found a distinct separation between bid and event legacies challenging, complex, and partly impossible. UB4 emphasized the critical role of legacy planning during bidding, underscoring its importance for offering an attractive, enduring campaign. Intangible legacies gained prominence in experts’ views, with UB1 highlighting their significance as equally crucial, if not more so, than tangible outcomes. Table 2 summarizes findings, anchor examples, and their corresponding frequencies.

Urban and Sports Infrastructure Changes. The study found that both successful and unsuccessful sports event bids influenced urban and sports infrastructure development. Experts noted that successful bids often resulted in timely infrastructure projects, including new sports facilities, venue enhancements, and transportation system upgrades. These projects were completed in anticipation of hosting the event, driven by the immediate need to meet event requirements. Experts involved in successful bids reported that these projects were integral to preparing the city for the expected influx of visitors and participants, often resulting in improved public amenities and transportation networks. For instance, cities with successful bids saw expedited timelines for developing public transportation and sports facilities due to the urgency of event preparations (SB1, SB2). These cities leveraged the bid to push forward essential infrastructure projects, ensuring they were ready to host.

Conversely, experts involved in unsuccessful bids mentioned that even without securing the event, the bidding process itself sparked the initiation of several infrastructure projects. The momentum and planning developed during bidding frequently led to the advancement of urban infrastructure and sports facilities, although these were sometimes scaled back or redefined following the bid’s failure (MAB1, UB3). Cities continued to benefit from these developments, as they had already begun to enhance their infrastructure in preparation for the possibility of hosting. Both types of bids were found to act as catalysts for urban and sports infrastructure improvements, encouraging investment in long-term development projects benefitting the community irrespective of the bid’s outcome.

Media and Image Exposure. The bidding process, regardless of success, substantially enhanced media presence and international exposure for bidding cities. Experts highlighted that successful bids typically resulted in extensive media coverage, both during the event and in the lead-up to it, elevating the city’s profile and attracting international attention (SB3, SB4). This exposure often helped position the city as a prominent destination for tourism, investment, and future events.

Participants involved in unsuccessful bids observed beneficial media attention garnered during the bidding process itself. Efforts to present and promote the city as a viable host often led to increased visibility and recognition, even without securing the event. These cities effectively used media interest generated by their bids to highlight their attractions and improve their international image (MAB3, UB1). The bidding process attracted significant attention from local and international media, helping to raise the city’s profile and draw positive interest from various stakeholders. According to UB1, “You suddenly have access … to the federal level to headquarters to the Federal Government …. In other words, everything that a local politician normally finds very time-consuming is much easier with an Olympic bid.”

Regardless of the bid’s outcome, experts perceived the media coverage associated with the bidding process provided valuable exposure for the cities involved. This media attention contributed to enhancing the city’s image, increasing global visibility, and fostering positive perceptions.

Political and Sports Networks Changes. The study found that the bidding process strengthened political and sports networks at local and international levels. Experts noted that successful bids led to long-term collaborations with international sports organizations and government bodies, facilitating the organization and hosting of the event (MAB3, SB2). These collaborations often resulted in enduring relationships beneficial for future initiatives, providing cities with access to valuable resources and expertise.

Participants involved in unsuccessful bids reported that the efforts to engage with international sports organizations and government agencies during the bidding process helped build significant networks (MAB2, UB3). Though unsuccessful, the cities’ developed relationships remained valuable for future opportunities. The bid process enhanced the city’s ability to interact with international stakeholders, laying the groundwork for potential future bids or other collaborative efforts. As noted by MAB2, “These networks into the Olympic movement and international organized sport also played a role.… A multi-sport event networks those who perform and those involved in the sport’s organizational and operational responsibilities, which are quite strong.”

Altogether, the bid process played a crucial role in building and strengthening political and sports networks, providing long-term benefits and facilitating future collaborations.

Positive Impacts. Both successful and unsuccessful bids were perceived as having positive impacts on host locations, particularly in terms of infrastructural developments and increased visibility. Experts involved in successful bids highlighted significant improvements in public transportation systems, sports facilities, and urban infrastructure, all of which were integrated into the city’s long-term development plans (SB1, SB2). These enhancements prepared cities for events, providing lasting benefits to communities through improved accessibility and amenities.

Additionally, SB2 noted, “In this Volunteer Team Tirol … there are two strong groups that always stand out in particular … the sustainability of the volunteer team is ensured above all when events continue to take place.” Experts from unsuccessful bids noted that the momentum from the bid often led to the initiation of infrastructure projects that continued beyond the bid (CB1, UB4). Although these cities did not win the bid, the infrastructure projects started during the bid process contributed to the city’s growth and development. The process acted as a catalyst, driving plans for new infrastructure and enhancements to existing facilities. CB1 mentioned, “The annual World Cup races are somehow already a basis for what is happening now. Often a major event like this also gives rise to other opportunities for young people, prospects, and interesting jobs.” The bidding process, irrespective of its outcome, seemed to contribute positively to the host locations by driving infrastructure improvements and increasing the city’s attractiveness.

Negative Consequences. Several negative consequences were associated with both successful and unsuccessful bids. Experts noted that high costs and financial burdens of hosting major sports events often led to public skepticism and criticism (MAB3, SB4). The financial strain of preparing for and hosting the event, including the construction of new facilities and upgrades to existing infrastructure, placed significant pressure on the city’s resources.

Participants from unsuccessful bids observed that the disappointment of not winning resulted in increased public skepticism about the value of future bidding efforts (SB2, UB2). The financial and emotional investment, combined with the lack of a successful outcome, led to reluctance and scrutiny regarding future bids. This skepticism often stemmed from concerns about the resources expended during the bid process and the perceived benefits. UB2 noted, “The cost side of the equation is now a thing of the past anyway. Under control but the efforts are also going in the direction of no longer using such expensive application processes … the citizen says that’s madness.”

The bidding process provided valuable opportunities for infrastructure development and media exposure while also presenting challenges related to financial strain and public perception for both successful and unsuccessful bids. Successful bids often led to positive momentum in infrastructure and exposure, while unsuccessful bids faced greater public disappointment and skepticism. Despite these differences, participants generally remained focused on long-term benefits, which may explain their distinctions in perceptions.

This section interprets key findings, explaining their implications for understanding the legacies of successful and unsuccessful sports event bids. The unique contribution lies in the comprehensive comparison of different bid outcomes, revealing that the bidding process itself can generate legacies regardless of outcome. This research provides a new perspective on the strategic utility of the bid process for urban development, media visibility, and network building, extending the understanding of MSEs as catalysts for change (Lauermann, 2016; Zimbalist, 2010). This approach both extends and challenges existing literature predominantly focused on the positive legacies of successful events, offering a broader understanding of how the bid process can be leveraged for long-term benefits (Bason and Grix, 2018; Chalip, 2004; Lauermann, 2016; Preuss, 2007).

The study found both successful and unsuccessful bids significantly improved urban and sports infrastructure, demonstrating the bidding process itself acts as a catalyst for development, regardless of the outcome. The findings support the objective of understanding how the bidding process impacts host locations by driving infrastructural projects. Successful bids often led to the completion of new sports facilities, upgrades to existing venues, and transportation system improvements. These developments were motivated by the immediate need to prepare for the event, resulting in tangible benefits for the city. Similarly, unsuccessful bids sparked the initiation of infrastructure projects, with cities using the momentum from the bid to advance long-term urban development goals. The bid process thus provides a strategic value, aligning with previous research that emphasizes the broader impacts of bidding on city planning and development (de Nooij and van den Berg, 2018; Lauermann, 2016; Müller, 2015; Zimbalist, 2010). This supports existing literature stating that cities can utilize the bidding process as strategic initiatives to promote and accelerate urban development projects, even if they do not ultimately secure the events (Bason and Grix, 2018; Lauermann, 2016; Preuss, 2015).

The bidding process, successful or not, significantly enhanced media presence and international exposure for bidding cities. This aligns with the study’s goal of exploring how bids affect host locations, demonstrating that media attention can be a valuable outcome even without hosting the event. Successful bids typically attracted extensive media coverage during and leading up to the event, boosting the city’s profile, making it more appealing to tourists, investors, and potential future events. Unsuccessful bids similarly benefitted from the media attention generated during the bidding process, helping to increase visibility and improve the city’s international image. Media exposure associated with the bidding process alone contributed to enhancing the city’s profile and reputation, aligning with existing literature, underscoring the positive impacts of media coverage during bidding (Bason and Grix, 2018; Müller, 2015). Therefore, media coverage generated during the bidding process can be strategically used to enhance a city’s image and attract international attention, regardless of the bid’s success.

The research highlighted that the bidding process, regardless of the outcome, strengthened political and sports networks at both local and international levels. Successful bids lead to long-term collaborations with international sports organizations and government bodies, facilitating the organization of the event and creating enduring relationships beneficial for future initiatives. Similarly, unsuccessful bids built significant networks by engaging with these entities during the bid process. These relationships provided valuable contacts, laying the groundwork for future bids or collaborative efforts. This supports previous studies by Chappelet (2012) and by Leopkey and Parent (2012). The findings suggest that the bid process itself enhances collaboration and creates valuable connections, contributing to the study’s purpose of understanding how bids impact host locations. Building networks during the bid process can provide long-term benefits and opportunities for host locations, even if the bid is unsuccessful, facilitating future sports events and other collaborative opportunities (Thomson et al., 2019).

While bidding for MSEs is often pursued with the expectation of generating positive legacies, it also carries significant risks. Studies have shown that the economic benefits of MSEs are often overstated, with little evidence of long-term financial gains for host cities (de Nooij and van den Berg, 2018; Zimbalist, 2015). Even without winning, cities may invest considerable financial and political resources, which could serve other community priorities. Failed bids can also lead to public disappointment, skepticism, and strained relations between city leaders and residents, especially when costs are high, and benefits are not realized. These challenges highlight the need for cities to evaluate the potential trade-offs of bidding for MSEs, ensuring alignment with long-term community goals and considering both anticipated legacies and potential downsides.

The findings suggest that perceived legacies from the bidding process, irrespective of bid success, can inspire strategic opportunities for host locations. However, these perceived legacies may not always translate into actual, tangible outcomes, highlighting the importance of carefully managing expectations and planning for potential and realized impacts. This study demonstrates that both successful and unsuccessful bids can generate positive legacies, challenging the traditional focus on successful bids. Cities should consider the bidding process as a strategic initiative with potential benefits related to urban development, media recognition, and network building. This supports previously conducted studies identifying these bidding effects (Koenigstorfer and Preuss, 2018). By effectively leveraging the bid process, cities can achieve positive outcomes and long-term gains, aligning with existing research on the broader impacts of major sports event bids (Bason and Grix, 2018; Lauermann, 2016). Cities should view the bidding process as an opportunity to achieve strategic goals, regardless of the bid outcome, maximizing the positive legacies associated with both successful and unsuccessful bids. This approach is further supported by findings that even smaller-scale bids, like youth multi-sport events, can enhance tourism strategies and economic benefits (Schnitzer et al., 2017).

The findings on the legacies of successful and unsuccessful bids have significant theoretical implications. By showing that legacies can arise during the bidding process itself, this study broadens existing legacy frameworks (Chalip, 2004; Preuss, 2007) and highlights the strategic value of bidding for cities as a catalyst for urban development, political connections, and global recognition (Lauermann, 2016; Müller, 2015).

Using Horne’s (2007) framework, this study examines the economic, political, social, and environmental dimensions of MSEs, exploring both the direct impacts of hosting events and the “unknown” elements of the bidding process. This approach provides a nuanced understanding of how bids—successful or not—can leverage these insights for long-term benefits, enhancing our analysis of how bidding can be strategically managed to maximize positive legacies and mitigate negative outcomes. This work expands on Horne’s (2007) framework by offering insights into the complexities of MSEs and introducing dimensions specific to MSE bidding. Specifically, it strengthens the dimensions of political implications and social consequences by emphasizing the “unknown” elements that emerge during the bidding process. Politically, the findings demonstrate that bids themselves have the capacity to enhance political and network connections, which are crucial for navigating the complexities of the bidding process. Managers should actively seek to leverage the bidding process to build and strengthen relationships with political stakeholders and international organizations, seeing that these networks remain active and accessible for future initiatives regardless of bid outcome. Socially, the findings underscore the consequences of bidding, including increased community engagement that is essential for advancing and sustaining bidding efforts. In order to achieve this end, managers should prioritize transparent and inclusive communication with local communities, fostering public support and participation from the start of the bidding process.

Moreover, traditional legacy research and frameworks have primarily focused on post-event outcomes. By addressing pre-event bidding processes, this study extends the temporal scope of legacy research, providing a more complete perspective on the lifecycle of MSEs and their broader impacts.

The study reveals managerial implications for cities and organizations in sports event bidding. Cities should see the bidding process as fostering long-term development, not just securing events, shifting focus from winning to leveraging bids for broader developmental goals. This aligns with the legacy frameworks proposed by Preuss (2007) and Horne (2007), emphasizing the need to consider economic, political, social and environmental dimensions in legacy planning.

The bidding process can act as a catalyst for advancing urban and infrastructure projects. Even without winning, the momentum generated can lead to significant improvements in sports facilities, transportation systems, and public amenities. Bidding should be integrated into urban planning as a tool to accelerate development and achieve long-term goals.

Bidding increases media exposure and international recognition, enhancing the city’s profile. City managers should prioritize media engagement during the bid to attract tourists, investors, and future events, maximizing visibility and fostering a positive global image.

The bidding process strengthens political and sports networks at local and international levels. Both successful and unsuccessful bids foster valuable relationships with international sports organizations, government bodies, and other stakeholders, providing access to resources and opportunities. Effective stakeholder engagement and relationship building are critical for long-term benefits.

Given the high costs and potential public skepticism, transparent communication with stakeholders is essential. Bidding committees should involve the community early, clearly articulating the bid’s benefits and addressing financial and environmental concerns, thereby building public support and mitigating resistance.

Planning for legacy outcomes from the outset of the bidding process is vital. Successful and unsuccessful bids generate legacies that can be leveraged for positive outcomes. Cities should conduct feasibility studies and develop comprehensive legacy plans early for sustainable development.

Unsuccessful bids provide valuable learning opportunities. Analyzing the feedback and experiences from failed bids can inform future strategies, helping cities refine their approaches and increase success chances in subsequent attempts.

Cities should approach the sports event bidding process as a multifaceted growth opportunity. By strategically leveraging the bid process, engaging stakeholders, planning for legacies, and learning from all outcomes, cities can maximize the benefits of bidding efforts, contributing to broader urban, economic, and social goals.

This study has several limitations. There is a scarcity of literature on legacies from international sports events beyond the Olympics and Football World Cup. The qualitative methodology used, including expert interviews, introduces subjectivity, potentially compromising replicability, generalizability, and transparency due to participants’ perspectives and emotions.

As highlighted in the literature review, the legacy concept remains intricate and multifaceted. This complexity extends to both the authors’ quest for a unified definition and the perspectives of the study’s experts. Since most participants were closely tied to bidding committees and occupied pivotal roles in event organizations, an optimistic bias in the results is plausible. This study primarily reflects the perceptions of these organizers, who may place greater emphasis on anticipated benefits rather than potential downsides. Incorporating a broader spectrum of stakeholder viewpoints, including community members and independent experts, could yield divergent outcomes, more comprehensively capturing both perceived and tangible legacies.

Regarding the selected events, the focus is primarily on winter sports, with few summer events included. Most participating experts are situated in Central European regions like the Alps (Austria, Italy, Germany), conversing in German, Italian, and English. Considering the unique nature of each event, findings cannot be generalized, and conducting a parallel study with a different sample might yield distinct conclusions.

The study underscores the significance of future research exploring various bidding types. Such inquiries not only illuminate disparities and parallels but also empower smaller bidding cities by showcasing the potential for impactful initiatives even without a winning bid.

Future research could also involve a longitudinal study tracking both planned and unplanned legacies from the initial stages of bidding, specifically focusing on unsuccessful bids, to provide a comprehensive view of the topic. This approach would allow for a clear identification of actual improvements in the areas identified as possible resulting from the bidding process alone, regardless of the final outcome.

Numerous planned projects clearly owe their realization to bids. The outcomes of bids sometimes take a backseat as projects are initiated during the bidding phase. Thus, a bid yields multiple advantages, leading to the implementation of plans regardless of the bid’s outcome. Substantial bidding costs often find justification as investments for the future and the well-being of the venue’s residents. The results demonstrate that even unsuccessful bids generate enduring effects with multiple benefits. Tangible legacies frequently involve enhancing and expanding sports and urban infrastructure. Intangible legacies notably revolve around improved media attention and image enhancement for the host region, extending beyond national boundaries to create positive memories. For events involving universities, joint organization and planning contribute to the university’s international profile. Public skepticism, often fueled by high investment and bid costs, can lead to “no” votes in referenda. To address this, deeper public education is essential, explaining precisely how funds will be used, advantages for the host country, and how the region’s weaknesses will be addressed for improvements.

We would like to thank the interview partners for taking part in this study and for their valuable contributions.

Funding: This work was supported by the 2020 Horizon European Union Framework Programme for Research and Innovation under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie (No. 823815) and by the publishing fund of the University of Innsbruck.

Disclosure statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).