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Keywords: Upstream participation
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Journal Articles
International Trade, Politics and Development (2025) 9 (3): 221–240.
Published: 18 November 2025
... informal to formal employment (Tanaka and Greaney, 2024). Global value chains Threshold Informal employment Downstream participation Upstream participation The International Labour Organization estimates that the informal economy accounts for 85% of employment in Africa and 68% in Asia...
