The following are summaries of papers published in other parts of ICE Proceedings during 2007 that readers of Bridge Engineering may find of interest. Summaries of all papers in ICE journals are freely available and fully searchable at the ‘journals on-line’ section of the ICE website. See www.ice.org.uk/journals for details.
Managing the inner world of infrastructure
M. Abbott
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
No. 1, February, 26–32,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.1.26
Stakeholder participation in major infrastructure projects is a multi-faceted and controversial topic. This paper introduces some of the more immediate issues and attempts to show that experience in so-called first-world projects is equally relevant in the third world. It suggests that every project exists in an ‘outer’ physical world and an ‘inner’ world of the collective minds of stakeholders, and that the creation of a communications environment in which the two worlds can begin to align is essential to success. This is now increasingly possible thanks to the internet and mobile telephony and, as demonstrated by experiences on the £6 billion Denmark—Sweden fixed link, it can lead to an almost utopian working environment of complete trust and absolute integrity.
Future-proof: Upton upon Severn viaduct, UK
J. Sreeves
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
No. 1, February, 33–38,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.1.33
Permanent highway structures are generally not designed to be moved at a later date. The new Upton upon Severn viaduct in Worcestershire, UK is an exception–at some point in the future its 170 m long 10-span deck will be jacked up to clear the flood waters which currently inundate it every five years or so. Carrying the A4104 highway over the notorious River Severn floodplain, it replaces a 1939 reinforced-concrete viaduct that had started to suffer severe structural decay due to poor design and ingress of de-icing salts. The urgency of its replacement meant there was insufficient time for a wholesale elevation of the roadway, so the new structure is designed both for inundation conditions as well as to be raised in future. Composite ‘filler beam’ construction and precast component were used to produce a slender, monolithic deck with minimum impedance to flood flows as well as to reduce the risk of flood delays. This paper describes the design and construction of this unusual, future-proofed, award-winning project.
Eurocodes set for global exploitation by UK designers
H. Gulvanessian
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
No. 4, November, 147,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.4.147
The completed set of Eurocodes is on course to become the world's leading suite of structural design standards by 2010. Haig Gulvanessian, chairman of the ICE/IStructE Eurocodes Expert initiative, says design engineers in the UK are better placed than most to exploit them.
Structural failures—the importance of learning from experience
J. Carpenter
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
No. 4, November, 150,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.4.150
Major structural failures continue to occur worldwide. John Carpenter of the ICE/IStructE/HSE Standing Committee on Structural Safety—which has just published its latest biennial report—says design engineers must continue to share and learn from each other's experiences.
Thomas Telford, county surveyor
P. S. M. Cross-Rudkin
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 1—Thomas Telford:
250 years of inspiration, May, 7–11,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.5.7
This paper describes Thomas Telford's early years in post as the first county surveyor of Shropshire in the UK, as well as the challenging nature of his relationships with the justices of the peace who employed him. As Telford's reputation on the national stage grew, his duties increasingly kept him away from the county and he employed Thomas Stanton to undertake the day-to-day work. Telford, however, retained responsibility and correspondence between the two men shows he not only provided leadership when required but also stepped into the breach when his deputy was being pressurised by the cost-conscious justices.
Thomas Telford's cast-iron bridges
R. Paxton
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 1—Thomas Telford:
250 years of inspiration, May, 12–19,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.5.12
Thomas Telford's innovations using cast iron included a landmark lightweight type of arch bridge with spans of 32–52 m, longer than then practicable in stone and exhibiting an unparalleled combination of strength, economy and intuitive design. This development influenced cast-iron bridge building until the 1830s and the adoption of elegant and effective lozenge-lattice bracing in bridge spandrels until the 1870s. This paper identifies and examines Telford's mastery in cast-iron bridge design, exemplified by a legacy of six bridges which are still operational in varying degrees after nearly two centuries.
Telford's masonry bridges on the Carluke Road, Scotland
T. Day
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 1—Thomas Telford:
250 years of inspiration, May, 20–25,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.5.20
This paper describes the construction of Thomas Telford's imposing nineteenth century bridge at Cartland Crags in Lanarkshire, Scotland and five smaller masonry bridges on the same stretch of road leading to Carluke. It is based largely on letters written by Telford, his inspectors and the contractor—some in the form of progress reports and others describing incidents during construction. They provide a revealing insight into the interaction between the parties involved, particularly during the tendering process and when things went wrong on site.
Telford's Menai and Conwy suspension bridges, Wales
W. Day
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 1—Thomas Telford:
250 years of inspiration, May, 26–30,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.5.26
Menai and Conwy suspension bridges in Wales, both completed in 1826 to Telford's design, represented a significant advance in engineering science and were the culmination of extensive experiment and theoretical study. Telford established practices and procedures during the design and construction of the 177 m span Menai and 100 m span Conwy bridges for experiment, analysis, test and inspection that are recognised to this day as good practice in engineering. The ideas and methods adopted have had a lasting influence upon the profession.
Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2: north Thames marshes
N. O'Riordan and M. Kirk
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 2—Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2,
November, 19–23,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.6.19
The 12 km north Thames stretch of section 2 of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link—now known as High Speed 1—involved constructing a high-speed railway formation across marshlands next to the Thames, alongside operating railways and crossing major roads. This paper describes the design and construction of the 12 km section which links the Thames tunnel to the London tunnels. The work included the push-launch of a 1 km long viaduct at Thurrock, which threads its way under and over the M25 bridge and tunnel crossings of the Thames respectively.
Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2: Stratford
S. Dyson and I. Blight
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 2—Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2,
November, 29–32,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.6.29
The last stop before London on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link—now called High Speed 1—is Stratford International in the heart of the London 2012 Olympic park. This paper describes the design and construction of the station box, a 1 km long, and up to 55 m wide and 26 m deep, open concrete structure. It initially served as the construction and portal site for four of the London tunnel drives on section 2 and now provides the location for the Stratford International station and major track junctions. Excavated material from both the tunnels and the box has been used to regenerate the old railway freight yards into a site for a major new development.
Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2: King's Cross lands
I. Gardner and T. Smart
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160,
Special Issue 2—Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2,
November, 33–38,
doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.6.33
Section 2 of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link—now known as High Speed 1—emerges from tunnels at the north-east corner of King's Cross lands in London and then sweeps across into St Pancras station at the south west. This paper reports on the major rail network that has been constructed in ‘area 100’ to enable train services to approach the extended St Pancras station, and also interconnect with other railway networks, thus facilitating high-speed rail services north of London. It describes the engineering objectives and the civil and railway construction works needed to achieve this complex railway network.
Modelling corrosion initiation of steel in concrete
C. P. Atkins, L. J. Buckley, A. R. Foster and P. Lambert
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials, 160, No. 2, May, 81–85,
doi: 10.1680/coma.2007.160.2.81
The main cause of corrosion initiation in steel reinforcement within concrete is the presence of chlorides above a threshold value. The primary source of chlorides is from the external environment, either from marine structures or de-icing salts. The most commonly used method of predicting or modelling chloride ingress is to use Fick's second law. Inevitably, there are significant variations involved in the positioning of the steel, the exposure conditions surrounding the concrete and the concrete itself. Due to the variability in chloride penetration and cover it is commonly found that the data will suggest that somewhere on the structure, chlorides have reached the depth of the steel. A single reinforcement bar with very low cover is, however, simple to address. It is more relevant to know when a significant proportion of the reinforcement is likely to become exposed to higher chloride concentrations. As structures are required to last for longer periods, and existing structures are reused for new purposes, the prediction of the likelihood of corrosion becomes more and more important. This paper presents two methodologies that may be applied to obtain a statistical assessment of chloride penetration from site data.
Life-cycle assessment and embodied energy: a review
G. F. Menzies, S. Turan and P. F. G. Banfill
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials,
160, No. 4, November, 135–143,
doi: 10.1680/coma.2007.160.4.135
In this paper life-cycle assessment (LCA) is studied and a brief review and classification of databases and inventories is given. The factors affecting the dissimilar results in various databases are examined and discussed. The main obstacles to LCA and life-cycle energy studies, and their sources, are discussed, together with the role of data in inventory analysis. Embodied energy results are reviewed and compared, and the causes of dissimilarities and variations in these studies are presented. This paper focuses on methodologies developed and adopted for data processing, and inventory analysis for building materials. The dataLCA relationship is investigated, and the importance and role of data in LCA is reviewed. A case study of steel as a building material is introduced and a number of life cycle energy assessment studies are evaluated. The paper concludes by outlining a number of issues which need to be handled with care when performing a life-cycle study, and which warrant further qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Motorway noise barriers as solar power generators
D. R. Carder, L. Hawker and A. R. Parry
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, 160, No. 1, March, 17–25,
doi: 10.1680/ensu.2007.160.1.17
During 2001 the Highways Agency (HA) commissioned TRL Limited to undertake a study to assess the feasibility of generating renewable energy on motorways and trunk roads. This study recommended that the HA undertake a full-scale trial of noise barriers incorporating solar panels. In 2004, two rows of solar barriers were installed in a cutting to the east of junction 9 of the M27. The trial was carefully monitored and showed that south-facing land alongside highways can successfully be used for solar barriers. In terms of maintenance, rainfall was effective in washing the panels; however, vegetation needs to be cut back at least annually unless the barrier is installed in a paved area. There was no evidence that drivers were distracted by the presence of the barriers or that noise reflected from the barriers would create any significant disturbance opposite the site. Although solar barriers are a feasible means of generating renewable energy on the highway estate, a whole-life cost analysis showed that the electricity generated over 30 years would not pay for the cost of installing the barriers unless the price of electricity was many times its current value.
Predicting footfall-induced vibration: Part 1
M. Willford, P. Young and C. Field
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings,
160, No. 2, April, 65–72,
doi: 10.1680/stbu.2007.160.2.65
The current paper reviews different methods that are presently available for the prediction of footfall-induced vibration in structures. Five such methods are considered in detail and it will be shown that these vary considerably in formulation, applicability and predicted response. Where possible, the theoretical basis, complexity, robustness, rigour, reliability and limitations of each are considered. This paper is presented in two parts. Part 1 deals with bridges and floors having vertical natural frequencies below 10 Hz, part 2 deals with floors whose first vertical natural frequency is over 10 Hz.
Predicting footfall-induced vibration: Part 2
M. Willford, P. Young and C. Field
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings,
160, No. 2, April, 73–79,
doi: 10.1680/stbu.2007.160.2.73
This is the second part of a two-part paper which reviews methods that are currently available for the prediction of footfall-induced vibration in structures. Part 1 considered methods appropriate for floors and bridges with vertical natural modes below 10 Hz. Part 2 considers floors with a first vertical mode over 10 Hz. The theoretical basis, complexity, robustness, reliability and limitations of four different predictive techniques are considered here.
Strengthening a steel bridge with CFRP composites
S. S. J. Moy and A. G. Bloodworth
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings,
160, No. 2, April, 81–93,
doi: 10.1680/stbu.2007.160.2.81
The present paper reports the successful strengthening of Acton Bridge on the London Underground system using carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) plates. The adhesive used to bond the plates to the steel had to cure while trains continued to run over the bridge.
Concerns arising from this were the effect of cyclic load during curing on the final bond strength and whether adhesive flexibility affected the reinforced section properties. Tests to investigate these concerns are also reported. These tests involved reinforced beams subjected to cyclic loading of different intensities in bending during adhesive cure and tested statically at intervals to determine the build up of stiffness. The tests showed that, generally, adequate bond develops but at higher load intensities the strength of the bond is reduced and above limiting values of slip or developed shear stress at the steel/CFRP interface no bond will develop. A further conclusion was that adhesive flexibility does reduce section properties but by less than about 7%. Lap-shear tests conducted on specimens cut from the reinforced beams confirmed the bending test results. These showed that the biggest reductions in bond strength were at the ends of the beams where slip and shear stress were greatest.
Refurbishment of London Underground bridge D141
G. T. Bessant and P. Williams
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Transport, 160,
No. 4, November, 157–164,
doi: 10.1680/tran.2007.160.4.157
Bridge D141 carries the District line of London Underground over the River Lea and Bow Creek in the east of London in the Greater London area. The District line is one of the three west-to-east lines of the London Underground, the others being the Central line and the Jubilee line. As such, it is of major economic importance. The bridge was built in 1888, and is of relatively light construction compared with modern bridges. The track form was of short longitudinal timbers, and corrosion had reduced the live load capacity. The light form, coupled with the short timbers, gave constant track and ride problems. As the bridge spanned two waterways, maintenance was difficult, and major works became necessary to avoid restrictions. The site being ‘landlocked’ hampered refurbishment works, and closure was not an option, as to do so would have caused unacceptable economic effects. This paper covers the history of the bridge, the problems that developed in the bridge, the solutions to the problems—both structural and in the track form—the refurbishment and strengthening of the bridge, and the problems encountered in the work.
Comparison of noise impacts from urban transport
M. Frost and S. Ison
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Transport, 160,
No. 4, November, 165–172,
doi: 10.1680/tran.2007.160.4.165
When new transport schemes are considered, a key issue is the potential impact of noise. The reaction of people to noise however is both personal and subjective. Whereas all types of new urban transport scheme have noise evaluations, little work has been undertaken to date to compare the noise generated by the different modes of transport namely, a tram, car, bus and guided bus. The lack of such evaluations has implications for scheme perception when new modes are introduced, and such comparisons frequently form part of the public debate when systems are proposed. This paper outlines the assessment of noise and its measurement, reviews the limited published comparisons between modes and presents the results of an extensive series of noise measurements of in-service trams, buses and cars, (taken mainly within the Greater Nottingham area). The measurements have been made across a range of similar operational circumstances to allow comparison between the relative noise of particular modes. The paper concludes that from measurement across operational circumstances there should be little perceived difference in noise from buses and trams, but that proportionately cars can generate significant emissions.
A simple method for estimating flood flow around bridges
G. Seckin MSc, T. Haktanir and D. W. Knight
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Water Management, 160, No. 4, December, 195–202,
doi: 10.1680/wama.2007.160.4.195
The software program HEC-RAS from the Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC) of the US Army Corps of Engineers is probably one of the most commonly used methods in the world for computing water surface profiles in rivers. The energy method (one of the four bridge subroutines within HEC-RAS) computes the bridge backwater (the upstream surface increase) by applying standard step calculations five times from the end of the expansion reach up to the beginning of the contraction reach, using two different transition loss coefficients and different reach lengths. The aim of this study was to estimate the backwater in a less cumbersome and practical way, without sacrificing accuracy. A one-step energy method is suggested, based on a comprehensive set of laboratory bridge backwater data from compound channels. The proposed method gives an absolute mean error of 10% when applied to these laboratory data and an absolute mean error of 25% when applied to field data collected by the United States Geological Survey including actual flood profiles through many bridges.
