Challenges in the transition of care leavers to adulthood in Spain: perception of experts Open Access

The transition to adulthood is a challenging process, and is particularly complicated for young people in and out of care, as stated in numerous recent studies (Brady and Gilligan, 2020; Campos et al., 2020; Santana Vega et al., 2018; Sevillano-Monje et al., 2021; Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo, 2022). Moreover, this process can be seen from different perspectives by all actors involved (Storø, 2017).

The first of these challenges arises before they reach the age of majority, as a lack of stability in residential care negatively affects the reintegration and educational advancement of young people (Dutta, 2017; Okpych and Coutney, 2019). Training is another challenge. Many young people in care do not complete secondary education despite the efforts of protection centres, even though training ensures a successful transition (Comasòlivas Moya et al., 2018; Goig Martínez and Martínez-Sánchez, 2021; Martín Cabrera et al., 2020). This directly affects the construction of their identity and the feeling of being respected young adults (Glynn, 2021). Consequently, these groups also have lower participation in upper secondary education or higher education (Groining and Sting, 2019; Kääriälä et al., 2019), largely because their access to careers is rapid due to the pressure to enter the labour market (Göbel et al., 2019). Consequently, it is necessary to increase the professional options of these young people with comprehensive training (Fernández-Simo et al., 2020), to plan adequate guidance in their life projects as it will their chances of success and to implement inclusive education policies and positive discrimination measures to facilitate access to training (Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo, 2022). Vocational training facilitates positive and self-reliant job search experiences (Mukisa Bukuluki et al., 2020). Work placements are also fundamental to the development of basic employability skills such as decision-making, problem-solving and teamwork (Santana-Vega et al., 2016).

Furthermore, numerous studies indicate that many young people in care are not supported by their birth families during the transition to adulthood, or that the support they offer is limited or inadequate (Gullo et al., 2021; Sulimani-Aidan, 2019), so they can only rely on themselves, causing loneliness and isolation (Stubbs et al., 2023). According to Sulimani-Aidan (2017b), parents are neither considered fit to guide and support them regarding their future choices and decisions, nor to provide them with the emotional support they need to successfully fulfil their plans. As indicated by Gullo et al. (2021) and Santana Vega et al. (2018), this does not apply to young migrants, who tend to have frequent contact with family despite their distance and better family relationships than young nationals. In addition, these authors mentioned that their birth families refer to them emotionally in most cases by providing them with emotional support. Reference is made to the migrant minors that we receive in Spain. In other words, young people were mainly from Morocco and, to a lesser extent, from African countries. Therefore, the reason for the migration of these young people is not to flee from war, but to seek better life opportunities and, in many cases, to financially support their “birth families”.

Having a referent is a determining factor in the social support of young people in residential care during their first stage of transition (Fernández-Simo et al., 2020), and the need for interpersonal recognition and valuation is met (Glynn, 2021). Therefore, a positive relationship with a trusted professional can serve as a bridge connecting young people to other specialists who respond to their support needs (Munro and Simkiss, 2020). A professional mentor can provide help and self-confidence, be a permanent and stable role model and substitute for other figures to help young adults achieve high goals and develop into healthy adults (Refaeli, 2020). The relationship between educators and children or young people has the potential to develop natural mentoring (Sulimani-Aidan, 2017a). Sulimani-Aidan (2018) showed that the majority of mentors of care leavers are educators in residential care. Several studies have revealed the importance of professional accompaniment in providing continuous support (Fernández-Simo et al., 2021; Häggman-Laitila et al., 2020).

Transition to adulthood programs also helps overcome difficulties at this stage, responding to the complex and interdependent needs that care leavers show in different and multiple settings (Arnau-Sabatés et al., 2021; Gunawardena and Stich, 2021). In addition, these programs have reported positive outcomes in education, the development of independent living skills and autonomy, labour market access and housing stability (Sevillano-Monje et al., 2021). However, they present a large gap in access, particularly for those with greater difficulties (Comasòlivas Moya et al., 2018; Fernández-Simo et al., 2021). This implies a substantial gap between the need for services and the receipt of services; therefore, it is necessary to further implement these initiatives and increase the number of places for more complete and equitable access (Fernández-Simo et al., 2021). Other studies also highlight the importance of starting these transition programs before the age of majority (Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo, 2022) and extending support beyond the age of 18 years because of the potential for mental health protection (Phillips et al., 2024). In addition, continued support encourages these youths to recover from trauma (Asif et al., 2024).

Another imperative challenge in the transition to adulthood of care leavers is psychological support. Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of addressing emotional problems (Boddy et al., 2020). Furthermore, providing interventions for trauma and emotional issues is one of the principles established by Harder et al. (2020) to promote positive outcomes in the care of this group. Despite this, Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo (2022) showed that emotional problems are not well addressed during residential care. Unfortunately, transition programs do not adequately address the psychological care of this group (Martín Cabrera et al., 2020; Sevillano-Monje and Martín-Gutiérrez, 2022), and there is a lack of specific programs that intervene in mental health needs (Sims-Schouten and Hayden, 2017). The situation experienced by minors before and after being in residential care, as well as the ongoing challenges and complex family relationships they face, are not easy for them (Boddy et al., 2020). For this reason, Yin (2024) indicated that there is a need to provide adequate protection, preparation and support to care leavers. This recommendation can also be applied at the Andalusian level, as the results of the project in which this manuscript is framed also demonstrate this need.

Arnau-Sabatés et al. (2021) highlighted the need for continuous evaluation to improve the effectiveness of the intervention. The system must be flexible and adapt to each young person according to the results of the socio-educational diagnosis and the needs of each case and not to the deadlines established by administrative processes to advance an effective emancipation strategy (Fernández-Simo et al., 2021; Storø, 2017). Similarly, legal frameworks must be established to guarantee the rights and satisfy the needs of young people in residential care to ensure their access to services (Harder et al., 2020).

In Spain, Law 26/2015, of 28 July, on the modification of the child and adolescent protection system, which modifies Organic Law 1/1996, of 15 January, on the Legal Protection of Minors, and partially modifies the Civil Code and the Civil Procedure Law, regulates, for the first time, measures for the promotion of emancipation processes for young people in exile. Specifically, in Andalusia, previous autonomous legislation has referred to this issue. However, Law 4/2021, of 27 July, on Childhood and Adolescence of Andalusia states in Article 132 that autonomy, social and labour integration and preparation for independent living are of the highest priority in the care process of adolescents and young people in residential care.

This article is part of the Project “Analysis, evaluation and improvement of the processes of intervention for the emancipation of young people in difficulty and/or at risk” led by the Association for the Professional, Integral and Social Formation of the Person (Inserta Andalucía) in Spain. The purpose of this project was to provide the necessary knowledge to improve programs and social policies oriented towards young people in and out of care in the region of Andalusia (Spain). For this purpose, a significant sample of 54 young people (nationals and foreigners) from the Spanish juvenile protection system in eight provinces of Andalusia was used. A detailed documentary analysis of existing policies and programs for transition to adult life developed by non-profit organisations from the perspective of the target group. Subsequently, questionnaires and life histories were completed using the selected sample, and their guardianship files were analysed. Finally, the conclusions regarding the challenges identified in the project were shared with experts in the field. Thus, this article aims to understand professional and university field experts’ perceptions regarding the challenges in the process of transition to adulthood of care leavers in this project.

This study combines a qualitative approach with quantitative support for the treatment of certain data. Content analysis techniques play a central role in the treatment of information (Cohen and Manion, 2002).

In this research, 65 Spanish experts were contacted and 27 were able to participate voluntarily because of their availability at the time the investigation was conducted. The sample of experts with youths in care and care leavers is understood as “a group of subjects selected based on being accessible or suitable” (McMillanm and Shumacher, 2005, p. 140). The sample was selected by intentional convenience sampling because the purpose of the study was not to generalise the results, but to understand the reality of the object of study and to establish correlations between the different variables under study. Expert participants from outside the project in Spain had to meet at least one of the following criteria for the selection of the sample:

• they had a university research career in the field;

• they had experience as administrative technicians in the field of child protection; and

• they had experience as active professionals in Education and Social Work linked to the environment of minors in care or care leavers.

The university experts were a total of 14 (5 men and 9 women) with ages ranging from 34 to 62 years and initial training related to psychology and education (social educators, pedagogues and teachers). These experts had professional experience ranging from 10 to 37 years old. There were four administration technicians were 4 (1 man and 3 women) aged between 41 and 57 years, with initial training related to pedagogy and teaching. These experts had professional experience ranging from 16 to 32 years old. The working professionals were 9 (8 men and 1 woman) aged between 29 and 46 years, with initial training related to education and social work. These experts had professional experience ranging from 7 to 24 years.

To conduct the research, the most appropriate information-gathering technique for the characteristics of the project was used; in this case, an ad hoc survey was used. An initial ad hoc survey was designed for elaboration of the instrument, which was subsequently revised until it was sent to experts. An ad hoc survey is used, as it allows specific questions derived from studies to be addressed and carried out at a specific point in time in the research, offering flexibility and accuracy in the responses obtained from experts in the subject matter under study. This survey consisted of 8 Likert-type questions ranging from 0 to 4 (completely disagree 4; completely agree 0). Reserved for situations in which there are not enough elements of judgement to provide an answer, or it is preferred not to answer) and open spaces where Likert-type questions are deepened. Before providing the instrument to experts, the project research team, which consisted of 11 researchers, agreed to the questions included in the questionnaire. Prior to the formulation of each item, a summary of the results obtained in the project framework was made, which contextualised the question. The items included in the questionnaire for the consultation of professionals and research personnel are presented in Table 1.

As indicated above, this article is based on the conclusions of a project on the challenges identified in the transition to adulthood of care leavers in Andalusia (Spain). Conclusions were drawn from the results of the project’s data collection (documentary analysis of the programs, questionnaires, life histories of the young people in the sample and analysis of their guardianship files). These results were summarised and included as contextualisation prior to each item of the questionnaire sent to the experts. The instrument was administered in November 2022.

This study met the ethical criteria for research involving human subjects in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. In addition, it was approved by the University of Seville under the collaboration agreement with the project entity. All participants were duly informed of the nature of the study in which they were voluntarily participating, and anonymity was guaranteed as well as the confidentiality of the data collected, following academic standards and the ethical aspects of the research.

Regarding data processing, content analysis was conducted in several phases following the premises of Corbin and Strauss (2008). First, the surveys were transcribed, and from this transcription, several readings were made, the fragments related to the study categories were coded and finally, the results obtained were described and interpreted. SPSS software (v. 29.0) was used to code the quantitative data, and NVivo software (v. 12) was used for qualitative data. Content analysis was used to obtain indicators through systematic procedures that would allow the inference of information (Bandín, 1996).

The categories were generated from existing literature and the reflective discourse of the experts surveyed. The researchers enunciated initial categories that were contrasted, discussed, refined and/or discarded through mutual agreement. Several categories were identified that were significant in the agreements and emergence of the experts’ reflective accounts. The process of interpretation, discussion and agreement was repeated several times until they were refined and thematic points were established that formed the final categories (Table 2).

For the analysis of quantitative data, frequency analysis was used through the calculation of the z-test for comparison of proportions, which indicated recognition of concordance between proportions. Once this is verified, the result is interpreted from the percentage of agreement with greater concordance to determine what they agree on and with what strength. Since there are no general rules for evaluating the degree of agreement obtained, the work of Landis and Koch (1977), based on the interpretation of Cohen’s Kappa, is taken as a reference.

The results are discussed below. First, the results of the frequency analysis by proportion are presented. Subsequently, the results of the seven units of comparison were as follows:

• training processes to improve social and work integration;

• family and informal support;

• professional mentor as a support figure;

• support systems at the age of majority; and

• Andalusian regulations.

The results show excellent levels of agreement between experts in the professional and university fields (very high agreement in the eight items considered). In other words, the degree of agreement between experts in the professional and university fields was very high (Table 3).

The experts highlighted problems encountered by young people in the training process that could hinder their social and labour market integration. In general, they point out the inequalities in opportunities they have and the lack of social skills to develop in different contexts:

Professionals add to these problems the late incorporation into the educational system, school dropout or absenteeism rates and linguistic and cultural barriers faced by these young people. University professors also point out that young people have little access to higher education:

Given the problems identified, a series of improvements that could be incorporated into training processes were suggested, such as strengthening training support and reinforcement programs, guaranteeing mandatory studies for all young people, promoting permanence in the educational system through post-compulsory and professionalising studies and training young people in social and cross-cutting skills:

In addition, professionals considered it important to promote classrooms and language immersion programs for young foreigners regardless of the ownership of educational centres:

In general, in Andalusia, it has been found that young foreigners have more family support than young nationals, which greatly affects their success trajectory. This is the opinion of experts in the university field, who characterise this support as positive. On the other hand, experts in the professional field qualify that the family support of young foreigners is demanding, as they are sometimes strongly influenced by the high expectations that their families place on them and the future of the entire family:

Regarding the characteristics of family support among young nationals, the experts agreed that it is characterised by being toxic and dependent:

A protocol for the improvement of the links with the family, as well as the competencies of the families (the part of the family system that can provide support), seems necessary, as the experts state the impact of this support on young people. Specifically, there is an influence on their life trajectories, the assessment they make of their environment and their achievement of their goals:

Knowing the importance of family support and its lack among young people in care and care leavers, it is important to consider actions that favour it. These include promoting family support as part of the intervention in the protection system and developing competencies for the coexistence of young people:

In addition, professional experts consider it essential to promote collaboration between institutions by exchanging knowledge, information and experiences that favour the care of young people, to encourage the recruitment of sponsor families, and to prevent conflict situations to increase parental skills, improve the situation of families and avoid situations of lack of protection:

Experts in the professional field stress the importance of informal support, characterised by a network of people close to young people who can contribute to their development, autonomy and emancipation without being trained professionals, such as their peers:

Transition processes are more effective when there is a network of formal and informal support, especially when they are adapted to the real needs of young people out of care and when there is permanent and continuous support. In this context, experts in the university environment reinforce formal support (i.e. professional mentors). This type of support is related to professional profiles that have training and experience in the field of social intervention, and are part of the resources made available to young people in the programs. However, both groups (professionals and university professors) recognised the role of a professional mentor as a support figure in the programs:

In this way, they stress the importance of professional accompaniment so that young people can count on a stable professional reference for interventions to be effective. Moreover, this accompaniment should not only take place when they are in the programs, but should also continue outside the protection system:

The mentor’s role as a positive reference point for young people in the emancipation process, as well as his or her closeness and commitment, stands out as characteristics of the mentor. University professors have added trust and security to these characteristics:

The emancipation process in the young population requires social, family and economic support networks among others. However, emancipation becomes more complex in young people who are forced into forced adulthood at the age of 18. Among the contributions of the experts, we found that a series of aspects must be addressed in this emancipation process. Among them, we find that the generation of an environment of security gives continuity to the protection in which they have found themselves until they reach the age of 18:

However, the need to improve the resources offered after reaching the age of majority, which is part of the protection system, has been highlighted:

Within the support systems after the age of majority, the importance of continuity of psychological support is emphasised, as well as the need to attend to mental health in this group in particular:

It is necessary to modify specific regulations to reinforce capacity for action. In this line, the experts state two criteria for modifying the legislation:

1. the need to adapt the interventions to the individual and specific circumstances of young people from a global and integral perspective (collaboration between systems and agents); and

2. the difficulty of adapting to the demands of the environment presented by the protection system itself:

University experts add that the regulations do not have monitoring and evaluation mechanisms that allow us to know what is working and should be maintained, and what is not and should be modified or improved for the adequate care of the group of unaccompanied foreign minors:

In analysing the necessary improvements, experts agreed that three specific areas should be considered. On the one hand, administrative regulation processes must be improved to streamline procedures and adjust the time young people spend in the system. However, it is necessary to increase the duration and continuity of emancipation support processes. Finally, it is emphasised that regulations should improve and enhance intervention in the mental health of young people:

On a more specific level, experts in the professional field also expressed the need to reinforce the permanent and continuous training of professionals working in the centres. Experts in the university field expressed the need to reinforce the training itineraries and options for young people:

This article has analysed the perception of experts in professional and university fields on the challenges in the process of transition to adulthood of care leavers in response to the objective set out at the beginning.

The experts have a very high degree of agreement concerning the challenges in the process of transition to adulthood of this group identified in the Project “Analysis, evaluation and improvement of the processes of intervention for the emancipation of young people in difficulty and/or at risk”. Specifically, the experts pointed out the problems encountered by these young people in their socio-labour integration due to their educational trajectories. In this regard, they mentioned a series of improvements similar to the proposals developed in various research studies, such as:

• comprehensive training;

• guaranteeing compulsory studies;

• promoting their permanence in the educational system; and

• promoting reinforcement and support programs (Fernández-Simo et al., 2020; Goig Martínez and Martínez-Sánchez, 2021; Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo, 2022).

This is especially relevant when considering the impact on youth identity construction (Glynn, 2021).

Likewise, experts point out the importance of family support because of its negative or positive impact on the transition process of care leavers (Sulimani-Aidan, 2017b; Gullo et al., 2021; Santana Vega et al., 2018). Consequently, as in other research, experts point to the need to propose actions that favour this support (Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo, 2022).

Undoubtedly, the transition processes between youth and adulthood of care leavers are more effective when there is a network of formal and informal support (Asif et al., 2024; Fernández-Simo et al., 2020; Phillips et al., 2024; Refaeli, 2020). In this regard, some differences were found between experts from professional and university settings. While experts from the professional field emphasise the importance of informal support (peer group), experts from the university field reinforce formal support (professional mentors). However, both groups of experts recognise the role of the professional mentor as a support figure in the programs, agreeing on the need to generate a safe environment that provides continuity of protection (Asif et al., 2024; Fernández-Simo et al., 2021; Häggman-Laitila et al., 2020).

In this context, experts also refer to improving and increasing post-majority support systems both in the number of places and in duration (before and after coming of age) and mental health care (Fernández-Simo et al., 2021; Phillips et al., 2024; Sevillano-Monje and González-Monteagudo, 2022). Experts also agree on the need for regulations to consider the individual and specific circumstances of this group by increasing the flexibility of administrative processes (Fernández-Simo et al., 2021; Storø, 2017), duration and continuity of emancipation processes (Fernández-Simo et al., 2020, 2021; Sulimani-Aidan, 2019) and enhancing mental health interventions (Boddy et al., 2020; Harder et al., 2020; Sims-Schouten and Hayden, 2017).

Based on these results, the main limitation of this study is that the sample is not representative of professionals working with young people in and out of care in Andalusia. Despite this limitation, the data, results and conclusions obtained establish a first step towards the realisation of broader studies. These studies could use samples that represent this professional sector, both at the regional and national levels, and could be transferred to the international level.

This study helps us understand the personal, family and work situation of young people in care and care leavers and the challenges they face. This has been studied from the perspective of professionals working with young people out of care, and researchers have focused on their transition to adulthood.

In view of the above, this study considers implications for research, policy and practice. The implications of this research are aimed at investigating the factors influencing the trajectories of success in the social and labour market insertion of care leavers. This will contribute to improving the interventions carried out with young people. Another implication for research is to understand the impact of the mental health of this group on emancipation processes.

At the political level, it should be taken into account to reinforce positive discrimination policies for access to training as well as socio-labour insertion programs for pre-employment skills. In this policy area, another implication is related to continuing to encourage the participation of volunteer staff and collaborating families. In addition, to create long-term professional mentoring programs, external to the residential care and transition to adult life programs, young people are followed throughout their emancipation. With respect to the support system, it is a priority that the transition to adult life should depend on the needs of young people and not on administrative deadlines or the maximum length of stay in the programs, as well as on providing human resources with a psychological profile to deal with mental health. It is also necessary to evaluate the support system.

Finally, at the practical level, it is important to reinforce educational support in residential care and transition programs to favour the academic processes of this group. Likewise, during the transition process, working professionals should recognise the importance of family support and involve children in care and care leavers’ families in the transition processes. It is no less important to motivate these professionals to continue their ongoing training on the subject under study.