..., sulfate attack and freeze–thaw damage, and evaluates their relevance to emerging binder chemistries. Advances in accelerated and natural exposure testing, as well as hybrid approaches integrating experimental data with modelling frameworks for service-life prediction, are discussed. Particular attention...

..., (b) systematic durability assessment including chloride ion permeability, sulfate wet–dry cycling, freeze–thaw ( FT ) resistance, and (c) nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) analysis and scanning electron microscopy ( SEM ) to identify the microstructural characterisation. A key finding...