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In the UK we have continued from the 1960s to introduce, develop and engineer fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite shapes and systems into new civil engineer works. FRP composites comprise a polymer based resin matrix that is reinforced by fibres of, say, glass or carbon. There are a number of composite manufacturing processes to produce structural elements, of which pultrusion and moulding (which can be with sandwich construction) are commonly used (see Chapter 4 in Mottram and Henderson (2018)).

It has been recognised for over 20 years (Chalmers, 1997; Gutiérrez et al., 2007) that the...

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