The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in education has transformed learning; however, the adoption of AI applications such as chatbots remains limited and varies across cultural contexts. This study aims to examine the determinants of AI chatbot adoption and implementation in higher education in Saudi Arabia. To achieve this, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) was extended to include perceived trust, perceived enjoyment and perceived ethics to create a more comprehensive framework for predicting user intentions and behaviors.
A quantitative approach was employed using a structured questionnaire administered to university students. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to assess the relationships among the proposed constructs and their effects on behavioral intention (BI) and actual usage behavior.
All eight hypotheses were supported, confirming that perceived trust, perceived enjoyment, and perceived ethics, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, significantly influence behavioral intention and use of AI chatbots. Perceived trust emerged as the strongest predictor of intention, while behavioral intention strongly predicted actual use. This study finds that AI chatbots can indeed have a positive impact when used ethically, trusted by users and integrated in enjoyable ways that enhance learning. However, they can lead to negative consequences if misused, particularly when ethical concerns or trust issues are ignored, or when overdependence, misinformation or academic dishonesty are left unchecked. These risks highlight the need for careful implementation, user education and robust ethical guidelines to prevent potential harm in educational contexts.
This study is limited by its focus on a single cultural and educational context Saudi Arabian higher education and by its cross-sectional design. Future research could apply longitudinal methods to explore changes in user perceptions over time or replicate the model in different cultural settings for comparison. Expanding the framework to include factors such as perceived risk, user competence or institutional readiness could further refine understanding of AI adoption. These limitations open avenues for future studies that may validate and generalize the findings across diverse educational environments.
The findings of this study have important implications for educators, policymakers and AI developers in Saudi Arabia. Educational institutions should promote responsible and ethical use of AI chatbots by developing clear guidelines and training programs that emphasize data privacy, academic integrity and user trust. Policymakers should strengthen digital infrastructure and establish supportive frameworks that facilitate the safe and effective integration of AI technologies. Developers should design AI chatbots with culturally relevant content and engaging features to enhance perceived enjoyment and encourage sustained use.
This study contributes to extending the UTAUT framework by incorporating trust, enjoyment and ethics as critical constructs for AI adoption in education. It also provides culturally grounded insights into AI integration in Saudi higher education, contributing to the global discussion on ethical and sustainable AI adoption in learning contexts.
