An environmental, social and economic exploration of climate change impacts on Australian freshwater tourism: a rapid review of the literature Open Access

Australia is the world’s driest inhabited continent, with between 55% and 75% of the country categorised as arid or semiarid regions (Zaman et al., 2012). Large rivers and permanent lakes comprise less than one percent of Australia’s total land mass (CIA, 2023). In this dry, diverse and expansive nation, freshwater features, namely lakes, rivers and dams, provide tourism opportunities, both directly, through activities including swimming, boating, fishing, rafting and water skiing, and indirectly, through non-aquatic pursuits such as bird watching, hiking and camping, and accommodation and hospitality (Downey et al., 2022, 2023, 2024).

In Australia, total tourism spending contributes approximately 3% of Australia’s GDP (Productivity Commission, 2015). Recent data suggest that freshwater tourism, or the business of providing accommodation, food and activities for tourists in and around lakes and rivers that contain little salt, in contrast to the sea (Dictionary of Leisure, Travel and Tourism, 2011) in regional and remote Australia has grown progressively (Aither, 2022) and is economically significant. For example, in Australia’s largest river system, the Murray Darling Basin (MDB), tourism contributes as much to the economy as irrigated agriculture, approximately $7.5bn annually, including overnight stays (MDBA, 2018). Freshwater tourism generates income for local people and businesses and attracts and retains community residents (Wheeler et al., 2023). In remote areas where Indigenous Australians comprise 45% of the total population, an estimated 12,000 to 16,000 people own ecotourism businesses (Akbar and Hallak, 2019), accounting for nearly 25% of these regions’ economic output (Tourism Research Australia, 2011).

However, Cheer et al. (2021) point out that unprecedented climate change is the most impactful crisis now and in the future. In Australia, global warming, characterised by climate variability and extremes, has caused a series of environmental disasters, including prolonged drought, bushfire and unprecedented flooding (Colloff et al., 2016; Cox, 2022), that raise environmental, social and economic justice issues (Cheer et al., 2021; Australian Academy of Science, 2022). The extreme and often unpredictable nature of climate patterns have issued dire consequences for Australian freshwater tourism and communities’ social and economic wellbeing (Downey et al., 2024). Critically, future projections suggest a future with far less water (Bureau of Meteorology, 2020; MDBA, 2024; World Meterological Organization, 2023).

Advancing understanding of the impacts of climate change on sustainable economic activities, such as Australian freshwater tourism, addresses the aims of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including mandates for “Clean Water and Sanitation” (SDG 6) and “Climate Action” (SDG 13) (“The 17 Goals”). Importantly, understanding the relationship between freshwater and tourism responds to the need for “concrete, integrated, and targeted policies and actions to eradicate poverty, reduce inequality, and end the war on nature” (UN, 2023a, p. 5).

Freshwater has long been recognised as one of the most critical and scarce natural resources for the tourism industry (World Tourism Organization, 2003). However, the direct effects of a changing climate, particularly an increasingly water-constrained environment (Lehmann, 2010), on Australian freshwater tourism remain understudied (Downey et al., 2022; Turton et al., 2010; Wheeler et al., 2023).

Our interest lies in how climate change has impacted Australian freshwater tourism, including in Indigenous communities disenfranchised from their sovereign lands and waters by colonist policies (Australian Academy of Science, 2022). Our review examines this topic comprehensively and incorporates a critical perspective on the environmental, social and economic consequences of Australia’s changing climate. By addressing the question, “How is Australian freshwater-based tourism affected by climate change?” we aim to amplify the voices of those involved in the tourism sector, which to date have been rarely heard, and to provide valuable knowledge as we contemplate a future with more intense weather events and less water.

This article presents a rapid review of the literature, an approach to literature synthesis that streamlines the systematic review process by selectively modifying certain steps and constraining the review’s scope while still aiming to produce information, albeit in a short time frame (Khangura et al., 2012). Despite the well documented value of the rapid review approach for decision-makers and others requiring time-sensitive information (Tricco et al., 2015, 2017), rapid reviews have been critiqued for their potential for bias and inconsistency that may yield poor quality results (Hartling et al., 2015; Tricco et al., 2015). To avoid such an outcome, we followed Khangura et al.’s (2012) framework that consists of five stages: (1) developing and refining the research question; (2) systematic literature search; (3) screening and selecting relevant studies; (4) narrative synthesis and (5) producing this review. The rapid reviewing methodology is now widely applied to examine the impacts of climate change in various fields, such as health and social care, particularly future workforce issues (Spanos et al., 2024; Tsakonas et al., 2024), and implications for various cohorts such as perinatal families (Jones et al., 2024) and members of the queer community (Kilpatrick et al., 2024). However, its adoption within the tourism sector is a relatively recent development (see for example, Sharma et al., 2021). Tricco (2017) argues for the use of rapid reviews as a means to deliver timely evidence, enabling policymakers to effectively address emergencies. Given the significant threat posed by urgent and unpredictable climate change to the tourism industry, conducting a rapid review of the existing literature is an appropriate approach.

The overarching review question was: How is Australian freshwater tourism affected by climate change? To ensure the retrieval of relevant evidence, we engaged an experienced university librarian to support the development of search terms. The search was performed by May 2023 on the Web of Science Core Collection, Informit and Hospitality and Tourism Complete databases and the platform ProQuest Sociology Collection, which searched the Sociological Abstracts, Sociology and Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts databases. Searches employed varied combinations of keywords, including (1) “Visit* Econom*”, Tour*, “Indigenous* tour*” and “Eco-tour*”; (2) river*, lake* and freshwater; (3) “Climate change”, “Climate extrem*” and “Global warm*” and (4) Australia ( Appendix). Given the catastrophic impacts of Australia’s millennium drought that commenced in 1997 and climate events that have since followed, we identified all relevant English language publications with full-text availability, from the years 1997–2023.

The search resulted in 417 records that met the inclusion criteria: keywords appearing in the title or abstract fields (see Figure 1). We exported these records to Covidence (Veritas Health Innovation, 2018), a web-based software platform designed to manage the systematic review process, including support of the screening process. With duplicated data removed (36), two reviewers, HD and JA, then independently screened titles, and abstracts of the remaining 381 papers. Three hundred and thirty-six papers were excluded using criteria presented in Table 1. The second screening process, conducted by reviewers HD, JA and ES, consisted of independent full-text reading of 45 papers. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria that resulted in the exclusion of a further 29 papers, we reached a consensus to keep 15 empirical papers and one book chapter for analysis. A hand search identified two additional empirical papers and two reports.

When reviewing full texts, reviewers also reached consensus that gathered data related to justice, specifically environmental, social and economic justice in the context of climate change impacts on freshwater tourism. Consequently, we chose to categorise results using these lenses (Table 2) We used the literature to define key terms, environmental, social and economic justice (Table 3). While recognising that environmental, social and economic injustice may occur simultaneously, this review presents and analyses each dimension separately.

All 20 publications discussed environmental justice issues (Colloff et al., 2016; Crase and Gillespie, 2008; Dawson, 2002; Gössling et al., 2012; Hadwen et al., 2012; Koehn, 2022; Lehmann, 2010; McCarthy et al., 2014; Onagi et al., 2016; Pyke et al., 2018; van Dijk et al., 2013; Howard, 2008; Willson et al., 2021; Wheeler et al., 2023; Bowman et al., 2022; Turton et al., 2010; Waters et al., 2010; Jackson et al., 2008; Wall, 2011; Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014). Three themes emerged from the literature: the relationship between freshwater and tourism, the direct effects of a changing climate on freshwater tourism and government policy responses to water scarcity.

Sixteen publications firmly established the indirect and direct relationships between healthy freshwater systems and tourism (Colloff et al., 2016; Crase and Gillespie, 2008; Gössling et al., 2012; Hadwen et al., 2012; Koehn, 2022; Lehmann, 2010; Pyke et al., 2018; Willson et al., 2021; Howard, 2008; Wheeler et al., 2023; Bowman et al., 2022; Turton et al., 2010; Waters et al., 2010; McCarthy et al., 2014; Dawson, 2002; Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014). First, ensuring reliable access to freshwater enables the promotion and marketing of tourism products, including golf, bushwalking, hunting, camping, birdwatching, health and wellbeing and food and wine (Lehmann, 2010; Gössling et al., 2012; Hadwen et al., 2012; Howard, 2008; Pyke et al., 2018; Turton et al., 2010), wildlife tourism (Willson et al., 2021) and Indigenous cultural tourism (Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014). Second, four publications emphasised freshwater bodies as significant drawcards for tourists, particularly in those regional and rural areas that hosted major events such as waterski racing (Howard, 2008; Waters et al., 2010; Lehmann, 2010; Crase and Gillespie, 2008), and rowing regattas (Waters et al., 2010; Lehmann, 2010). Finally, seven publications noted the appeal of inland waterbodies that enable recreational activities such as swimming, boating, fishing and whitewater rafting (Dawson, 2002; Koehn, 2022; McCarthy et al., 2014; Howard, 2008; Wheeler et al., 2023; Colloff et al., 2016; Bowman et al., 2022). At the same time, 12 publications across a wide date range observed catastrophic and incremental climate events such as floods, risks associated with rising temperatures and drought impacts on environmental features and tourism. Impacts of flooding on Australia’s southeast states were diverse (Dawson, 2002; McCarthy et al., 2014; Pyke et al., 2018; van Dijk et al., 2013; Koehn, 2022). Pyke et al. (2018) noted flood-related landslides and road closures over several months in Harrietville, Victoria. In Harrietville and the Richmond and Murray Rivers of NSW, significant rainfall over a short period resulted in hypoxic blackwater events where reduced oxygen levels caused large-scale fish and endangered species, such as crayfish and platypus, mortality that further impacted water quality (Koehn, 2022; Dawson, 2002; McCarthy et al., 2014; Pyke et al., 2018; van Dijk et al., 2013) and recreational fishing tourism activities (Dawson, 2002; McCarthy et al., 2014).

Four publications addressed the precarity of the summer season including how extreme heat and the risk and outcomes of fire events have deterred visitors (Pyke et al., 2018; Willson et al., 2021; Bowman et al., 2022; Waters et al., 2010). Heat waves and associated plagues of gnats and the fine dust from dry lakebeds that rose on windy days have resulted in heightened health risks for communities and visitors (Pyke et al., 2018; Waters et al., 2010). Localised fire risk in the Tasmanian wilderness resulted in parks and river closure (Bowman et al., 2022), while in Harrietville, a small community with nature-based attractions including rivers, 37,000 hectares of bushland burned over two months in 2013 (Pyke et al., 2018). Critically, Willson et al.’s. (2021) findings suggest that bushfires are increasing in intensity, with the 2019–2020 Australian bushfires burning more than 18 million hectares in southeastern states. Over a billion animals died, and a further 3 billion were impacted by injury and habitat loss. Ramifications of these fire events include reputational damage to place and Australia’s vibrant wildlife tourism industry.

Low flows during the Millenium drought, described as “the worst drought on record for southeast Australia” (van Dijk et al., 2013, p. 1040) was a consistent theme (Bowman et al., 2022; Crase and Gillespie, 2008; Hadwen et al., 2012; Koehn, 2022; Lehmann, 2010; van Dijk et al., 2013; Wall, 2011; Waters et al., 2010). Water scarcity during this period impacted the scheduling of activities such as whitewater rafting (Hadwen et al., 2012) while the increased presence of blue-green algal blooms caused public health concerns, with associated reduced visitation rates to rivers, lakes and dams (Hadwen et al., 2012; Crase and Gillespie, 2008). In some cases, low flows further impacted visitation rates as increased toxicity in waterways threatened ecology (van Dijk et al., 2013), particularly the habitats of many native fish and water birds (Wall, 2011), and riparian red gum forests (Lehmann, 2010), that draw visitors to freshwater ecosystems. Water scarcity during the Millenium drought also resulted in Victorian waterscapes, Lake Boga and the Wimmera River, running dry. The associated stench of rotting fish and cessation of tourism events such as rowing regattas kept visitors away (Lehmann, 2010; Waters et al., 2010).

Eleven publications addressed future climate scenarios and the ramifications for waterscapes and tourism. Climate projections are for a hotter, more arid future with reduced annual rainfall in most Australian states (Bowman et al., 2022; Colloff et al., 2016; Hadwen et al., 2012; Turton et al., 2010; van Dijk et al., 2013). Bowman et al. (2022) and Pyke et al. (2018) highlight that such change will issue increased fire danger and extended fire seasons. Critically, Australia faces a future with less water (Lehmann, 2010; Onagi et al., 2016), which will impact flow seasonality (Colloff et al., 2016; Gössling et al., 2012; Onagi et al., 2016; Bowman et al., 2022; McCarthy et al., 2014). As a result, unprecedented changes to floodplain and wetland ecosystems (Colloff et al., 2016) and increased hypoxic blackwater events (McCarthy et al., 2014), particularly in the southeastern states, are expected. This scenario raises an interesting tension. On the one hand, dry conditions will issue increasing demand for recreational water pursuits, particularly in inland Australia (Gössling et al., 2012; Hadwen et al., 2012). However, tourism in affected areas is predicted to become unsustainable due to less water availability, seasonal aspects, for example, a shortened period for whitewater recreation in Tasmania’s Franklin River (Bowman et al., 2022), competing demand for water resources, the transformation of wetlands to drylands and reduced riparian woodlands and forest areas (Colloff et al., 2016; Gössling et al., 2012).

Policy responses to reduced water availability have included the National Water Initiative (2004), which embraced Indigenous environmental knowledge established through connection to and care of land and waterscapes over millennia, in water planning for the first time (Jackson et al., 2008). Also Water for the Future (2009), a ten-year agreement between the Australian, State and Territory Governments (Jackson et al., 2008) that aimed to secure water supplies through climate change adaptation measures such as recycling and desalination plants. Turton et al. (2010 p. 437) and Wall (2011) also highlight the introduction of a range of water-saving measures along “the ‘green,’ ‘clean’, and ‘sustainability‘ lines”, including improved river operations and farm water use efficiency. The Water Act 2007 is the legislative framework for the Murray Darling Basin Plan, a strategy that aims to return the MDB river system to health through sustainable and integrated management (Jackson et al., 2008; Onagi et al., 2016; Wall, 2011) including buyback of 2,750 GL from irrigators for environmental purposes (Onagi et al., 2016). Such affirmation of environmental water needs in Australian water policy challenges deeply held views that “waters are underutilised, if not wasted, as large rivers run from source to sea” (Jackson et al., 2008, p. 284) and has resulted in fierce opposition, particularly from the irrigated agriculture industry (Onagi et al., 2016). Specifically, MDB irrigation communities’ sustained protests resulted in the redrafting of the MDB Plan and reducing the amount of water to be returned to the river system from 4,000 GL to 2,750 GL (Onagi et al., 2016).

The marked absence of similar attention directed toward fire and flood mitigation policies in the publications reviewed here is of critical importance given climate disasters disproportionately affect marginalised communities (Benner et al., 2021), such as those intertwined with freshwater ecosystems in regional Australia and strongly suggests that water scarcity has been viewed as an isolated climate issue. However, some authors argued the need for tourism stakeholders, including Indigenous groups and leaders, to influence policy regarding sustainable water, land and energy management, fire risk reduction, consideration of amenity values and protection of cultural assets (Gössling et al., 2012; Willson et al., 2021; Howard, 2008). This recommendation may result in a more holistic approach to environmental policy and also suggests the importance of exploring aspects of social justice, particularly the fundamental human right of participation (Benner et al., 2021).

Of the 20 publications reviewed here, sixteen raised social justice issues. This body of literature addressed two themes: perceptions of and emotional responses to climate and environmental change, and equity.

Critically, some publications identified the media’s powerful influence over public perceptions of environmental conditions in tourism destinations (Gössling et al., 2012; Lehmann, 2010; Pyke et al., 2018; Turton et al., 2010; van Dijk et al., 2013), observing relentless reporting of environmental crises, specifically, reduced flows, scant water availability, poor water quality and toxicity (Gössling et al., 2012; Lehmann, 2010; van Dijk et al., 2013) and fire events (Pyke et al., 2018). The authors argued that such coverage, variously described as misleading and sensationalised (Pyke et al., 2018), damaged popular tourism areas’ reputations (Gössling et al., 2012; Turton et al., 2010; van Dijk et al., 2013), decreased visitor numbers and reduced communities’ confidence to promote destinations to tourism consumers (Lehmann, 2010). Willson et al. (2021) point out the role of emerging discourses, such as those in social media, that provide more accurate reflection of public sentiment concerning environmental events.

A further component was communities’ emotional response to the consequences of environmental catastrophes (Pyke et al., 2018; van Dijk et al., 2013; Waters et al., 2010). When Harrietville was ravaged by fire, residents experienced deep feelings of loss when two firefighters were tragically killed (Pyke et al., 2018). Despite this, a few publications reported community and tourism stakeholders' continued uncertainty and scepticism towards climate change science (Turton et al., 2010; Waters et al., 2010), and in one case, residents’ complacency about planning and preparing for increased risk of future fire events (Pyke et al., 2018). Such a concerning lack of understanding serves to illustrate the interconnectedness of social and environmental justice, with Benner et al. (2021) pointing out the critical social need for awareness of climate change impacts.

Overall, drought-affected communities experienced poor emotional well-being, increased substance use, depression and suicide rates resulting from the combination of a harsh climate and loss of community cohesion and water-based recreational activities (van Dijk et al., 2013). Reduced visitors to drought-affected Lake Boga led to community residents experiencing isolation (Waters et al., 2010). Residents expressed anger towards authorities that was underpinned by perceptions that the lake should have been valued, protected and secured before it dried out. Eleven publications observed how the impacts of rapid environmental change raise issues of equity, which, when viewed from a macro perspective, may be understood as a “whole of society” responsibility (Benner et al., 2021). Critically, increasing competition between the multidimensional values that freshwater aquatic systems have for the Australian population brings the politics and ethics of water management and access to the fore (Gössling et al., 2012). Structural inequalities resulting from the continuing privileging of water for agricultural and mining needs, including its commodification through water markets, manifest as water insecurity for the environment, wildlife, tourism and communities in regional tourism destinations (Gössling et al., 2012; Koehn, 2022; Wheeler et al., 2023; Jackson et al., 2008). Five publications noted freshwater’s critical role in sustaining Indigenous cultural values (Colloff et al., 2016; Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014; Koehn, 2022; Wheeler et al., 2023; Hadwen et al., 2012). Water scarcity that decimated crayfish and fish populations and significant heritage sites located near freshwater sources (Koehn, 2022; Wheeler et al., 2023) undermined Indigenous cultures. Responses to water security in far northwest NSW, including water-saving initiatives at Menindee lakes, have further marginalised local Indigenous groups and tourism operators who prefer water in the lakes (Colloff et al., 2016). The symbiotic relationship between the health of land and waters and Indigenous people’s emotional, social and physical health was exemplified in the observation “when Country is sick we are sick” (Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014, p.7).

Several publications proposed the benefit of stakeholder consultation and community involvement in environmental disaster preparedness and response, although none provided specific examples of Indigenous Peoples' participation and cultural consultation. Community forums were formed in Lake Boga and Harrietville, Victoria and Lake Hume, NSW, Cairns, Queensland and the Barossa Valley, South Australia and river recovery groups in the Richmond River area, NSW (Crase and Gillespie, 2008; Dawson, 2002; Pyke et al., 2018; Waters et al., 2010; Turton et al., 2010). These community forums, comprised of stakeholders including local fire authorities, community members and groups and tourism operators, contributed to management plans and served as community communication mechanisms for emergency response projects and as conduits between communities and government. In Harrietville, community and tourism stakeholders reflected on the importance of communicating local knowledge as part of bushfire management strategy, as such events have profound environmental and health implications for tourism and recreational activities, including bushwalks, touring routes and freshwater activities (Pyke et al., 2018). A further function of community forums was to lead adaptation and recovery initiatives, for example, a focus on the importance of producing food locally in the tourism destinations, Cairns, and the Barossa Valley (Turton et al., 2010) and alternate tourism events such as Lake Boga’s Dry Lake Bed Dinner attended by more than two thousand people (Waters et al., 2010). These initiatives successfully supported the collective identity of communities enmeshed with freshwater tourism (Pyke et al., 2018; Turton et al., 2010). In sum, the inclusion of community voices in diverse preparation and response activities may have the potential to address some forms of social inequity. However, a key tenet of social justice is encouraging active participation within communities (Benner et al., 2021), and the inextricable link between environmental and Indigenous health identified here demands the inclusion of Indigenous voices in community forums.

Not only are lakes, rivers and dams central to the identity of regional towns (Lehmann, 2010; Waters et al., 2010), in many cases they are the economic lifeblood of communities and regions, attracting and retaining residents through better amenity, social and recreational opportunities and critically, providing income for local businesses.

Our search identified fifteen publications that concerned economic justice. Of these, six highlighted the economic value of tourism during usual climate conditions while thirteen observed the impacts of a changing climate on the tourism industry. Most focussed on sites in the MDB where international and domestic tourism pursuits, notably, camping, overnight stays, trekking, birdwatching, boating, skiing and recreational fishing generated AUD$300m and AUD$3bn respectively in 1997 (Howard, 2008). Tourism in the Murray River region alone was estimated at A$1.6bn in total value in 2006, before the impacts of the drought took hold (Howard, 2008), and amenity services such as tourism have now replaced primary production as the economic base of many Murray River towns (Howard, 2008; Wheeler et al., 2023; Colloff et al., 2016). For example, visitations contributed $30.5m per annum in the Coorong, South Australia, site of Ramsar-recognised wetlands, and the Murray Mouth (Wheeler et al., 2023). When water levels are high, lakes also provide considerable economic benefit to regional communities; for example, in 2005, Lake Hume’s recreational value was $3m per year (Crase and Gillespie, 2008). A particular point of focus was the significant economic benefit of recreational fishing, a pursuit that is increasing in popularity (Howard, 2008; Koehn, 2022; Wheeler et al., 2023). As a result, economic output is now estimated at $353.81m in inland NSW alone, “with an associated employment of 1,539 equivalent full-time jobs” (Wheeler et al., 2023, p. 26). Critically, only one publication suggested the potential of freshwater tourism to create new opportunities for developing Indigenous economies (Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014)

Tourism and agriculture in the MDB contribute equally to the economy in terms of export value, GDP and employment (van Dijk et al., 2013), yet Onagi et al. (2016) analysis of the MDB Plan illuminates how the discourse has privileged the economic consequences of drought for the agricultural sector over all other industries. This is curious given others noted the significant economic impact of increased temperatures, reduced rainfall, vastly changed flow regimes and increased salinity on tourism (Crase and Gillespie, 2008; Howard, 2008; Lehmann, 2010; Turton et al., 2010; Wall, 2011; Waters et al., 2010; Wheeler et al., 2023).

The impacts were far-reaching, affecting not only water-based and eco-tour operators (Jackson et al., 2008; Waters et al., 2010), also accommodation services and local businesses, with economic ramifications for communities and regions (Crase and Gillespie, 2008; van Dijk et al., 2013; Waters et al., 2010; Wheeler et al., 2023). Drought reduced visitations along the Murray River alone resulted in a 5% reduction of gross regional product (GRP) in 2008 (van Dijk et al., 2013). Rural communities' economic sustainability was sometimes threatened as lakes, rivers and visitors disappeared. Specifically, communities experienced service, winery and retail closures, cessation of significant tourism events that are important income sources and low motel and caravan park occupancy rates (Lehmann, 2010; Waters et al., 2010). In other locations, drought-related algal blooms reduced tourist visitation and spending by a third (Crase and Gillespie, 2008). Some also noted the impact of such drought-related devastation on local housing and labour markets, specifically declining house prices and loss of full-time, part-time and casual employment opportunities (van Dijk et al., 2013; Waters et al., 2010; Wall, 2011). However, Colloff et al. (2016) noted that when faced with declining water flows, some southern MDB communities have transitioned from red gum timber and agricultural production to tourism and recreation which now serve as these communities’ economic base. In this context, the continued privileging of agriculture in the water policy discourse strongly suggests economic injustice, specifically, the marginalisation of the tourism industry.

There was little literature that highlighted the economic consequences of flood and fire. Flood-related fish kills resulted in the decimation of recreationally valuable species and tourist opportunities (Hadwen et al., 2012), however, specific economic evaluations of such losses are yet to be undertaken (Koehn, 2022). Harrietville, affected by flood and fire, in 2013, was a unique case study. The town’s capacity to generate a nature-based tourism economy was thwarted for at least three months while roads remained closed (Pyke et al., 2018).

Overall, the literature concerning economic justice suggests structural discrimination through policy (Benner et al., 2021); notably the curious absence of freshwater tourism voices in water policy debates. Additionally, two critical gaps in the literature emerged that related to economic policy. First, there was a lack of discussion of policies that respond to economic losses in protracted disaster recovery periods, and second, an absence of attention to increasing insurance costs in the wake of environmental catastrophes. Regional Australians are most affected by climate change, and both these economic issues serve to further disadvantage regional tourism business owners.

This rapid review utilised lenses of environmental, social and economic justice to report the impact of climate change on Australian freshwater tourism. In total 20 publications were identified with most focussed on southeastern Australia. Overwhelmingly, results show inextricable links between the dimensions of justice and raise many matters of urgency that have ramifications for tourism in the context of future climate change.

First, the wide date range of publications addressing environmental justice showed that the frequency and intensity of floods, fires, heatwaves and water scarcity have increased over the past 3 decades. These climate crises affect freshwater ecosystems, with specific climate events such as flood-related landslides, bushfires and drought impacting human health, wildlife habitats and tourism visitation rates. The long period of recognition of these climatic-related issues highlights the lack of action to address them. A few publications observed how water scarcity has led to policy responses, such as the Murray Darling Basin Plan with its focus on increasing environmental flows. However, results also suggested that the strength of the irrigated farming industry may be thwarting policy aims of restoring river health, an objective that is key to a thriving freshwater tourism industry. Critically, water scarcity is far more complex than its construction here as an environment/extractive use dichotomy (Howard, 2008). First, tourists require access to fresh water for drinking and sanitation purposes (Gössling et al., 2012). Second, the lack of equal attention in the literature to bushfire and flood policy responses suggests that water scarcity is understood as a discrete environmental issue. This is surprising, given the wide date range of publications that observed the impacts of all climate disasters also suggest cyclical impacts. The increased frequency and intensity of catastrophic fires, for example, strongly suggests that climate extremes are interlinked; fires may be fuelled by vegetation growth after periods of heavy rainfall, such as floods, and access to water is critical to firefighting efforts (Fletcher, 2023), that, in rural Australian communities fall to small local fire services staffed by community volunteers (O’Halloran and Davies, 2020). Further, the lack of further analysis of a key water policy outcome, namely, increased environmental flows, strongly suggests that one important focus of future research may be examination of relationships between improved lake, river and wetland health and tourism rates and expenditure. Additionally, healthy freshwater ecosystems that enable activities including swimming, recreational fishing and Indigenous and wildlife tourism are key to a thriving Australian freshwater tourism industry. Publications that presented projected climate scenarios, particularly a hotter, drier future with reduced water availability served to emphasise the critical need to respond to climate change impacts and to address their root causes.

Second, a social justice lens illuminated key findings that focussed on perceptions of freshwater ecosystems and climate change, and equity concerns particularly in regional areas that are already disadvantaged in terms of socio-economic status, and employment, health and welfare outcomes (AIHW, 2024). However, the absence of nuanced analysis of these issues in the literature raises some notes of concern.

Publications revealed tourists' deep appreciation of Australian freshwater ecosystems yet also highlighted the mainstream media’s power to negatively influence public perceptions of environmental conditions and reduce visitations. The literature strongly suggested that rivers, lakes and dams also shape the identity of many regional towns. Yet, some publications pointed to structural inequalities in water management, including the marginalisation of Indigenous peoples, tourism operators and communities. Consequently, it may be empowering for community residents, including tourism business operators, to share local knowledge of climate extremes and impacts and environmental disaster preparedness.

Results concerning scepticism regarding climate change science in some regions (Turton et al., 2010; Waters et al., 2010) have congruence with recent data that indicates that while 77% of the Australian population viewed drought and water shortages as critical threats and 67% expressed similar concerns around bushfires and floods, only 59% identified climate change itself as a significant threat (Kassam, 2020), and suggest a compelling need to develop communities’ insight. Climate change is not merely a scientific issue but also a deeply social and political one, shaped by media, political ideologies, cultural values, levels of trust in scientists, community interactions and local narratives (Bevan, 2020; Carvalho, 2010; The interpreter, 2024). Consequently, attitudinal change is a multifaceted task that Carvalho (2010) and The interpreter (2024) argue may be achieved by media providing greater contextual detail about the current state of scientific climate change research, and by leading change from within groups, such as freshwater tourism operators. Further, publications noted communities’ long-term experience of individual and social well-being and community solidarity issues resulting from environmental crises (Pyke et al., 2018; Waters et al., 2010; Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation, 2014; van Dijk et al., 2013). The work of Willson et al. (2021) suggests the potential of social media as a medium to unite disparate people through a common cause, express concern and make links between Australian experiences of climate-related devastation and the global climate emergency. Consequently, online spaces may provide alternative avenues for raising awareness of climatology and the provision of targeted and well-considered social and emotional support. WHLM (2024) argues that such support may enable communities to contribute effectively to environmental disaster recovery and response strategies.

Critically, there was a paucity of Indigenous-led or co-designed research among the publications included in this review. Given the cultural importance placed on connection to land, water and environment in Indigenous societies, the inclusion of Indigenous cultural considerations in water policy, the high number of Indigenous ecotourism businesses and the tenacity shown by Indigenous Peoples in the face of ongoing settler-colonialism (Australian Academy of Science, 2022), the curious lack of examples of Indigenous perspectives and experiences suggests that the freshwater tourism discourse may have been colonised. This is despite increased recognition of the importance of ensuring the security of Indigenous rights to water, including for cultural purposes and enterprise developments such as water-based cultural tourism (O’Donnell et al., 2021). Indigenous knowledges have played a critical role in land and water management over millennia, and it is imperative that they are valued accordingly.

Results concerning economic justice showed that freshwater ecosystems serve as the economic backbone of many regional Australian communities by attracting residents and visitors and supporting local businesses. They are also an important national economic generator. The breadth of dates of publications observing the theme of freshwater tourism’s vulnerability to climate change, particularly in the Murray Darling Basin, emphasised the lack of effective responses despite long-term acknowledgment of the issue. The impacts extended beyond freshwater-based tourism operators to encompass accommodation services and local businesses, with droughts leading to significant reductions in visitations, and economic downturns that threaten regional communities’ sustainability. Curious gaps in the literature included the lack of similar economic analysis of the impacts of floods and fire, and no mention of economic support to businesses and rising insurance costs in the aftermath of climate related disasters. In sum, our rapid review strongly suggests prolonged government disinvestment and disinterest in the climate issues experienced by the Australian freshwater tourism industry, and that globally, governments have failed to respond effectively to the threats posed by climate change.

There are several limitations of this rapid review. The first is the absence of key terms: environmental, social and economic justice from our search. Inclusion of these terms may have yielded further results. Second is the scarcity of publications identified; the time-limited nature of a rapid review suggests that there is a possibility that not all potentially relevant publications were included. A systematic review would permit exhaustive, comprehensive database, hand and grey literature searching. An external review of search terms may have achieved more sophisticated search strategies that included specific terms relating to Indigenous cultural knowledge of Country. Despite this, rigour is demonstrated though our clear documentation of the review process, which is a significant strength of our review.

This rapid review is the first to examine the impacts of climate change on Australian freshwater tourism. Understanding the impacts of Australian climate extremes contributes knowledge that may benefit the future of tourism globally. The implications for the future are sobering and results accentuate the pressing need to confront climate change challenges. Water scarcity is a critical issue and the increasing focus on achieving Indigenous water justice provides a compelling and interesting overlay that could impact freshwater tourism in many jurisdictions in the future. However, our review highlights a need for further research that centres Indigenous cultural knowledge of Country and is codesigned with Indigenous and non-Indigenous regional communities to better understand and respond to all the urgent climate issues illuminated in our analysis. It is only by considering the environment holistically that effective change may be achieved.

This rapid review was funded by the Joss Family Award for Research Excellence. The Joss Family had no involvement in this research.