The following are summaries of papers published in other parts of ICE Proceedings during 2007 that readers of Waste and Resource Management may find of interest. Summaries of all papers in ICE journals are freely available and fully searchable at the ‘journals online’ section of the ICE website. See www.ice.org.uk/journals for details.
New rules demand more care of protected species and habitats
J. Abbatt
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160, No. 4, 148, doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.4.148
New rules have recently come into force in the UK which oblige civil engineers to take even more care of protected species and habitats during construction works. Jon Abbatt of environmental consultancy ADAS explains the ever-tightening legislation and what it means for the profession.
Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2: Thames tunnel
M. Burgess and H. Davies
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160, Special Issue 2—Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2, November, 14–18
Tunnelling under the Thames estuary was considered to be the greatest risk to section 2 of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link project—now known as High Speed 1. However, it was delivered safely and ahead of programme by the application of risk management and sound engineering by the tunnel-boring machine manufacturer and contractors. This paper describes the award-winning design and construction of the 3·6 km long, twin-bore crossing.
Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2: Stratford
S. Dyson and I. Blight
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering, 160, Special Issue 2—Channel Tunnel Rail Link section 2, November, 29–32, doi: 10.1680/cien.2007.160.6.29
The last stop before London on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link—now called High Speed 1—is Stratford International in the heart of the London 2012 Olympic park. This paper describes the design and construction of the station box, a 1 km long, and up to 55 m wide and 26 m deep, open concrete structure. It initially served as the construction and portal site for four of the London tunnel drives on section 2 and now provides the location for the Stratford International station and major track junctions. Excavated material from both the tunnels and the box has been used to regenerate the old railway freight yards into a site for a major new development.
GGBS and sustainability
D. Higgins
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials, 160, No. 3, August, 99–101, doi: 10.1680/coma.2007.160.3.99
Concerns about climate change have heightened interest in sustainable construction materials. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag offers civil engineers a high-quality, environmentally-friendly material, which can replace much of the Portland cement used in concrete. This article looks at its manufacture and environmental impact and gives examples of its use.
Life-cycle assessment and embodied energy: a review
G. F. Menzies, S. Turan and P. F. G. Banfill
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials, 160, No. 4, November, 135–143, doi: 10.1680/coma.2007.160.4.135
In this paper life-cycle assessment (LCA) is studied and a brief review and classification of databases and inventories is given. The factors affecting the dissimilar results in various databases are examined and discussed. The main obstacles to LCA and life-cycle energy studies, and their sources, are discussed, together with the role of data in inventory analysis. Embodied energy results are reviewed and compared, and the causes of dissimilarities and variations in these studies are presented. This paper focuses on methodologies developed and adopted for data processing, and inventory analysis for building materials. The dataLCA relationship is investigated, and the importance and role of data in LCA is reviewed. A case study of steel as a building material is introduced and a number of life cycle energy assessment studies are evaluated. The paper concludes by outlining a number of issues which need to be handled with care when performing a life-cycle study, and which warrant further qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Recycled waste glass as aggregate for lightweight concretes
A. Petrella, M. Petrella, G. Boghetich, D. Petruzzelli, D. Calabrese, P. Stefanizzi, D. De Napoli and M. Guastamacchia
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials, 160, No. 4, November, 165–170, doi: 10.1680/coma.2007.160.4.165
A granulated porous recycled waste glass (RWG), namely Poraver, derived from the differential separation of municipal solid waste, was used as aggregate in concrete formulations. On account of the intrinsically highly porous cellular structure of the reference materials, the concrete structures appeared particularly light and refractory to thermal effects. The use of this type of glass has been focused on the production of lightweight concrete that is able to improve thermal insulation in addition to demonstrating good mechanical properties. In this context, the thermal insulating properties of RWG-based cement conglomerates were analysed and compared with equivalent conglomerates produced by the use of expanded clays. Very promising results were obtained from the concrete prepared from a mixture of the recycled waste glass and expanded clays, in terms of the high mechanical resistance attributed to the clays coupled with lower thermal conductivity of expanded glass.
Mechanical properties of cement-bound recycled pavements
M. Katsakou and S. Kolias
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Materials, 160, No. 4, November, 171–179, doi: 10.1680/coma.2007.160.4.171
Tensile (uniaxial and flexural) and compressive (uniaxial cube and equivalent cube) tests were carried out on mixtures of crushed aggregates and milled bituminous materials with proportions by mass 100/0, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, 0/100, respectively. All mixtures were bound with 3 or 5% by mass (b.m.) cement and 5·2% b.m. water. Strength and modulus of elasticity were determined for one-day- and 60-day-old specimens. It was found that this type of recycled materials forms a generation of new materials with different and enhanced properties in comparison with ordinary cement-bound granular materials. Both strength and modulus of elasticity decreased as the proportion of milled bituminous material in the mix increased. However, the rate of decrease of the tensile strength was lower than that of the corresponding compressive strength and similarly the rate of decrease of the modulus of elasticity was lower than that of the corresponding strength. For each mix proportion a different relationship existed between compressive strength and tensile strength and between tensile strength and the corresponding modulus of elasticity.
Briefing: BREEAM—making what's important measurable
V. Mistry
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, 160, No. 1, March, 15–16, doi: 10.1680/ensu.2007.160.1.1
Environmental effects from building stock in the UK are extremely high. For example, approximately 50% of UK CO2 emissions results from the operation of buildings such as homes, offices, schools, shops and leisure facilities. This figure alone is significant but rises to 75% if CO2 emissions from the manufacture and transport of construction materials and transport CO2 emissions (usually taking us from one building to another) are also included. This means that three quarters of the UK CO2 emissions are attributable in one way or another to the building industry. This is just one reason why the Energy Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD) is essential. However, while energy is a critical part of the sustainability debate, it is not the whole picture. The impact of water, natural resources, embodied energy, land use, ecology, other emissions and even the internal building environment should also be considered. This is the view of a number of key construction industry clients such as the Office of Government Commerce, the Housing Corporation, the Welsh Development Agency/Welsh Assembly Government, English Partnerships and an increasing number of regional development agencies and local authorities, all of which now specify the Building Research Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method (Breeam) for their new buildings or buildings on their land to allow developers to demonstrate a commitment to sustainability as part of the planning process.
Sustainability indicators for environmental geotechnics
I. Jefferson, D. V. L. Hunt, C. A. Birchall and C. D. F. Rogers
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, 160, No. 2, June, 57–78, doi: 10.1680/ensu.2007.160.2.57
Environmental geotechnics (EG) has the potential to make a substantial contribution to the field of sustainable construction, which in turn affects sustainable development. Indicators for measuring sustainable performance within the construction sector are well developed because the concepts have been around for many years. However, within the EG sector they are not, probably due to the combined difficulties of inherent site-specific complexity and scale. In addressing this shortfall, the aim of this paper is to present a new suite of environmental geotechnics indicators (EGIs). The new EGI system is formulated from existing construction sector indicators, from which a set of 108 separate indicators for assessing progress towards achieving greater sustainability are presented. Using a point score system (1 (harmful) to 5 (significantly improved)), the set of indicators can cover the entire timeline of a project in eight distinct stages (feasibility to long term). The set includes 76 ‘generic indicators’ used to assess the sustainability of any geotechnical project and a set of 32 additional ‘technology specific’ indicators used to assess the sustainability of specific techniques for treating contaminated land. This latter indicator set can be modified, or substituted by any appropriate technology-specific indicator set, to address whatever geotechnical processes are proposed in a project. The final output of the assessment is an eight-pointed rose diagram that can be used to highlight areas of weakness within a project. The indicators within this new model are not split into various sustainability pillars (economic, social and environmental), thereby reducing the risk of an end-user focusing on the economic pillar alone. The indicators are applied to a case study site.
Improving company performance through sustainability assessment
P. Braithwaite
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, 160, No. 2, June, 95–103, doi: 10.1680/ensu.2007.160.2.95
The present paper introduces the concept of developing manufacturing facilities, organisational procedures and company responsibilities through an approach to sustainable development. The approach is centred on a case study of Kingspan Insulation Ltd, one of the construction industry's main suppliers of insulation products. For the last 18 months Kingspan Insulation has been involved with an assessment of its organisational procedures, practices and wider community impacts using the sustainable assessment framework Sustainable Project Appraisal Routine (Spear). Over this time period, an assessment and subsequent reassessment have indicated areas where the company can improve its sustainability performance and have enabled them to demonstrate real progress towards sustainability. By adopting this approach of using independent assessment at annual intervals, the company has undergone rapid cultural change and achieved this within its normal operational budgets. The approach adopted and advantages realised are described along with the responsibility taken on by senior management. As sustainable development is a process of continuous improvement, the latest action plan developed with the company is outlined.
Greywater recycling: treatment options and applications
M. Pidou, F. A. Memon, T. Stephenson, B. Jefferson and P. Jeffrey
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, 160, No. 3, September, 119–131, doi: 10.1680/ensu.2007.160.3.119
Wastewater is an immense resource that could find significant applications in regions of water scarcity. Greywater has particular advantages in that it is a large source with a low organic content. Through critical analysis of data from existing greywater recycling applications, this paper presents a review of existing technologies and applications by collating a disparate information base and comparing/contrasting the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. Simple technologies and sand filters have been shown to have a limited effect on greywater; membranes are reported to provide good solids removal but cannot efficiently tackle the organic fraction. Alternatively, biological and extensive schemes achieve a good general treatment of greywater with particularly effective removal of organics. The best overall performances were observed within schemes that combine different types of methods to ensure effective treatment of all the fractions.
Thermal waste treatment for sustainable energy
C. Ryu, V. N. Sharif and J. Swithenbank
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, 160, No. 3, September, 133–140, doi: 10.1680/ensu.2007.160.3.133
Waste disposal, energy production and pollution minimisation are key problems that must be addressed for sustainable cities of the future. In a world with finite resources witnessing a population explosion, much effort is being made to change the way in which developed societies consume energy and materials and dispose of waste. This paper reviews the current UK practices of segregation and treatment of municipal solid waste (MSW) with focus on advanced thermal treatment technologies. MSW is segregated either at source or at dedicated facilities across the country. The residues of waste segregation can be thermally treated for energy recovery. Direct incineration of unsorted waste is currently the main route practiced by the energy from waste (EfW) industry. Typical MSW incinerators can burn wastes with a wide range of calorific values without any waste pre-processing. However, these incineration systems have low energy efficiency and suffer from unfavourable public opinion. Consequently, gas clean-up technologies associated with waste incinerators have been developed further, especially for dioxin removal and fly ash treatment. The two main alternatives to incineration are gasification of pre-processed waste and production of solid recovered fuel (SRF) from mechanical and biological treatment (MBT). Both processes have potentially higher energy efficiencies than incineration and more flexibility in the use of primary products. Further technology developments with regulatory drivers are required to compete with incineration. Another route available for EfW is pyrolysis, producing cheap and storable fuel products. Pyrolysis is suitable only for specific types of waste material. Pyrolysis of waste wood can produce a good-quality char that can be readily burned in coal-fired power plants or other higher energy efficiency thermal systems.
Effective partnering—remediating the former Avenue coking works
J. H. W. Turner, S. Pearce, M. J. Fenton and B. Sims
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer, 160, No. 3, September, 117–126, doi: 10.1680/muen.2007.160.3.117
Over the past seven years a number of organisations have been working in close partnership to find acceptable and sustainable solutions to the highly complex task of remediating and regenerating the former Avenue coking works, one of the largest in Europe, at a cost of over £100 million. The Avenue has provided a significant opportunity for true partnership working between the public and private sectors. Considerable consultation with the public, community organisations and regulatory and planning authorities is helping shape the vision for the future of the site. The final landform will include community leisure and recreational facilities, opportunities for commercial and residential development, restoration of the river floodplain, creation of wetlands and a flood-balancing reservoir. Previous attempts to find a solution have run into regulatory and legal difficulties. However, partner organisations have worked closely together to develop solutions. These include working on a risk-based approach and arranging transfrontier shipment of waste material samples for trial remediation in Europe; this has helped to derive an on-site treatment solution, thus avoiding difficult, disruptive and costly off-site waste transfer and disposal processes. Over 1 million cubic metres of soil will be moved and treated. A design and build contract has been negotiated, with early involvement of the contractor, and work is about to start on the four-year remediation contract.
The attenuation and treatment of runoff using sand tanks
M. Mansell and S. Tingle
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer, 160, No. 3, September, 151–157, doi: 10.1680/muen.2007.160.3.151
This paper describes how the runoff from roads and other paved surfaces can be attenuated and treated by a sand/gravel filter tank. It proposes a design for such a tank and gives details of tests carried out on a two-dimensional (2D) section of the tank. These tests showed that significant reductions were achieved in suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and concentrations of road salt, although there was little effect on the levels of metals. This work also shows how the hydraulic performance of such a tank can be represented by a double-reservoir model using both design storm events and historic rainfall data. A 2D finite difference model of the tank is also described.
Littering of a watercourse in north-west England
I. D. Williams and N. Deakin
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer, 160, No. 4, December, 201–207, doi: 10.1680/muen.2007.160.4.201
The deposition of litter and rubbish is an increasingly significant environmental problem, with the dumping of shopping trolleys in rivers and canals impacting on flora, fauna and river management in some areas. The Mersey Basin Campaign (MBC) identified Skelmersdale in the north-west of England, and the River Tawd in particular, as a hot spot for the dumping of shopping trolleys. In this study, methods for performing litter and shopping trolley surveys were developed. A survey of the River Tawd was performed during 2002, together with snapshot social surveys of local adults and children. Comprehensive yet simple methodologies to quantify and report litter and trolley accumulation over time are reported. The study successfully quantified the litter accumulation and numbers of shopping trolleys in the commercial sector of Skelmersdale and established the views of the local population. Pedestrian litter was the most abundant type identified, with the quantity of litter associating well with the presence of urban features. The shopping trolley survey identified local hot spots and established the total number of shopping trolleys along a 1250 m stretch of the river. The first survey in April 2002 found 79 trolleys, which increased to 105 by July 2002. The river would probably not have been cleaned without the intervention of MBC, emphasising the importance of community and voluntary groups to the maintenance of local environmental quality. The presence of shopping trolleys and general refuse in the river presented a negative view of water quality to the public, highlighting the importance of loss of visual amenity as a perceived indicator of pollution. The study also identifies the social and environmental impacts of dumping shopping trolleys in watercourses and explains why physical barriers were the most successful means of reducing the dumping of trolleys.
