Contemporary systems and cybernetics Free

Keywords: Automation, Cybernetics, Research,Technological innovation

AbstractGives reports and surveys of selected research and development in systems and cybernetics. They include: First cyborg, Europe's fastest academic computer, NeuroRobotics, Management cybernetics, Biocybernetics, Advances in software development, and Microscopic microchips.

First cyborg

Life as a cyborg

Professor Kevin Warwick, who is professor of cybernetics at Reading University, UK, claims, it is reported, to have been the world's first cyborg. His “cybernetic arm” we are told is the result of a surgical implant into the nerve of his arm which enables him to be directly linked to computer systems. The ensuing publicity in the media has certainly highlighted cyborgs. Details of the experiment for chip implantation have already been reported in KybernetesVol. 30 Nos 1/2, 2001, pp. 14-15, and Vol. 29 Nos 1/2, 2000, pp. 9-10.

Whether the experiment and subsequent media interest is “good”for the image of cybernetics is, ofcourse, debatable. His book I, Cyborg(by Kevin Warwick, Century, London, Price £16.99), to be reviewed in this journal, includes a great deal of information about his work and the publicity it has brought. There is, however, some criticism already of the book because Dr Warwick is said not to have taken the opportunity of explaining to the public,if not to the sceptical scientific community, why linking humans to computers will produce all that he predicts. Any cybernetician would agree immediately that if such a connection can be sustained the result of interaction between computing machine and the human could produce remarkable results. Even the simple link that has been described, where an implanted chip can be used to control doors, lights and perhaps more sophisticated devices is an achievement. The question of whether a combination of human-machine will bring some new kind of intelligence is, ofcourse, another question.

Cybernetics is, we continue to insist, totally interdisciplinary, so we need,if we are to progress at all in this initiative, to combine the talents and researchers of both those who are experts in the fields of computer developments and those who, for the want of a better description are called neuroscientists.

Implanted chips for tracking purposes

Experiments in implanting chips in humans can also provide invaluable data for applications involving the simpler aims of providing tracking or identification systems.

We already know of the success of chips implanted in objects such as motor vehicles, machines, and other valuable items. Some very sophisticated tracking devices have been developed using GPS so that pinpoint positioning can be achieved. Similarly identification chips are in use which also provide valuable information about a product or machine part. Implanting chips in animals has also, after some initial difficulties, proved an effective way of both tracking and identifying a variety of creatures. Now the experiments with implants in humans has offered innumerable potential applications. The use of implanted chips to control the internal administration of drugs or the operations of some implanted device such as pacemakers etc. is becoming a reality.

Professor Warwick has recently advocated in the media the use of “chip implants” in children following the spate of child abductions both in the USA and the UK. Parents, he says, should be in a position to consider such implants in their children. Such “tracker implants” would allow their location to be easily monitored. It has to be noted, ofcourse, that there are still many technical problems to be overcome before such systems are available in the market. Professor Warwick's initiative can surely inspire both interest and the will to produce such systems.

Europe's fastest academic computer

The United Kingdom's Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council(EPSRC) has claimed that “the biggest and fastest academic computer in Europe” will be operational at the beginning of 2003. Under the headline“Supercomputer becomes reality” the EPSRC publication Connect(Issue No. 05) gives the following details:

The new computing service was due to start early this year and is located at the Daresbury Laboratory near Warrington, UK.

The service will based on:

It is claimed to be the largest high-performance computer for academic use in Europe. It is a key component in the UK's e-science Programme and it will be connected to the Research Council's emerging new computing resources infrastructure, the UK Grid.

The report in Connect outlines its uses and says that:

Readers can obtain more details from: EPSRC, Polaris House, North Star Avenue, Swindon SN2 lET UK. Tel: 01793444000; Web site: www.epsrc.ac.uk/hpc

Neuro-robotics

United States scientists from SUNY Downstate Medical Centre have reported on a Robo Rat project that they have initiated. In a research paper published in Nature (May 2002) they describe some of their remarkable results. It may soon be possible, we are told, that because of their researches a remote-controlled living “Robo Rat” could be involved in numerous and varied applications. Their work is a spin-off from research to give paralysed people the ability to move and feel artificial limbs. The report of the project presents their findings and described now five rats carrying a special backpack which contained a battery, radio receiver and brain stimulator were controlled by a human operator sitting up to 500 yards away. The human operator was able to make them weave in and out of obstacles and navigated them over a course. Instead of using the traditional methods of animal training which associated behaviour with rewards, the researchers directly stimulated the parts of the animals' brains that responded to the movements of their whiskers and to receiving rewards of food. Electrical signals were sent to parts of the brain and provided a virtual contact to the animal's whiskers, showing them which way the operator wished them to go. In their research paper it is shown how, by stimulating these “whisker centres”, the rats could be steered and by stimulating the brain's reward centre, they could reinforce the correct behaviour. The report describes the demonstration which resulted when:

• A radio receiver that was fitted inside the backpack linked the brain electrodes via an interface on the rat skull.

• These electrodes that have been implanted in brain areas that receive stimulation from left or right whiskers (in the Neocortex).

• Rats turn left or right in response to stimulation.

• They are rewarded by stimulation of a part of the brain sensing reward (in the Hypothalamus). They are also stimulated when they move forward.

• By rewarding both forward movement and the correct responses to left and right whisker stimuli, rats can be steered through a salom or obstacle course.

As a result of being trained the rats could then be made to turn, run, jump and climb through an unconfined three-dimensional environment following the commands given from a laptop computer.

New researches

Dr Sanjiv Talwar of SUNY Downstate Medical Centre summarises the researchers findings:

The team's main aim, Dr Talwar said, was to develop neurorobotics. He also said for the record, “we are pretty strong on animal rights and our rats are very well treated”.

Some applications

There are many applications of the use of this new research. One suggested was that a rat could now be easily used as a search and rescue tool. Indeed after this remarkable demonstration another use suggested was that of hunting for landmines. The research team were at pains, however, to point out that“much would depend on the humanitarian needs of a situation”.

The obvious application, as already described, would result from the development of “brain-machine” interfaces. The “spin-off”to so many areas concerned with understanding the functions of the brain in both the human and the animal could have enormous potential in the development of“human-robot machine”, “human-animal” and, indeed,“human/machine-animal” systems. Calling the studies neuro-robotics has the worthwhile benefit of focussing attention on what could be an innovative area of endeavour.

Management cybernetics

Innovative projects

Business interaction survey. A research report published in the Higher Education Business Interaction Survey shows that British universities are establishing stronger commercial links with the business sector. The report says that the universities:

Link information storage and display system. The UK government announced a new £24 million programme to support the UK's computer and information technology industry. A new LINK information Storage and Display programme has been set up to fund a range of collaborative projects between companies and the universities, with the aim of helping UK-based companies to exploit the global market which could reach more than £100 billion by the end of the decade.

Half of the funding is provided by the Department of Trade and Industry and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council.

Innovative manufacturing centres created in the UK.

A UK Government report has announced that:

Corporate tracking

Introduction of corporate tracking systems. Recent events have increased the awareness of corporate employers of the need to keep track of their employees more efficiently. It was inevitable that new computer systems would be designed for the tasks involved. Initially there was the perceived threat of “employee privacy” but this was soon dismissed by both companies and their employees when the benefits were realised. It was reported that in 2001 corporate kidnappings, for example cost companies £300 million a year (see Business Travel 2002). Some companies in consequence have developed technology to keep in touch with staff at all times.

The World Bank is one such organisation from which staff make an estimated 27,000 business trips a year, and has consequently implemented a travel alert system called iJet's WorldCueTraveler which is able to track employees automatically. Employees of the organisation input information about their travel itinaries into their office computers before leaving. The system receives the information and is designed to monitor staff, passing advice before their actual departure and during the period they are away from the office.

The communicating systems use E-mail, or wireless devices such as mobile phones, wearable computers or the handheld variety. Such links enable those monitored by the system to receive advance warnings of civil unrest or information about general travel disruption. iJet's WorldCueTraveler is now being updated to cover from 154 to 180 countries whilst doubling its list of African nations reported on by the system. To provide all this up-to-date information the system collates information from some 5,000 sources. These cover areas such as health, entry/exit regulations, security, transport, finance,culture, the environment, legal issues and language.

The issue of employee privacy is still the one that is being addressed by companies despite the obvious advantages of being monitored when on corporate business. A spokesman from Archer Daniels Midland, the agricultural multinational reports that none of its 2,000 international travellers believe their privacy is being compromised.

Although this may be the current thinking new tracking facilities that can pinpoint the position of any user of an electronic communications device are being perfected and our views are likely to change very rapidly. Mark Cheviron the Director of Corporate security for the company says that:

Consulting the employee. Obviously in the sensitive matter of employee privacy, companies need to consult with those who use their tracking system. The best approach is one where the computerised tracking system is regarded as another useful company information system with employer guarantees that the information it contains is secure and personal movements of its users available to only nominated senior staff. We are already aware that with many mobile phones their usage can disclose the user's location, but this information remains secure unless there are very compelling reasons for its release. The problems that arise because a tracking systems is being used will increase as more and more are put into operation in our automated society. Current projects,for example, to monitor the location of motor vehicles will undoubtedly lead to calls for the safeguarding of the privacy of those affected. One computer scientist has forecast that we will all have not merely identity cards that can be monitored by a computer systems, but also an implanted chip that will transmit and receive information. Systems of this description were once confined to science fiction but are now slowly becoming a reality. As to the questions of personal privacy it will remain a hotly debated issue as to whether we will be able or allowed to turn-off such a tracking system. It would, ofcourse, as the business technology director of Hogg Robinson, the business travel agency says:

There is no doubt that the issue of the threat to privacy that modern technology poses cannot be dismissed easily and will have to be part of the brief to any new system designer who is charged with producing such potentially invasive automated tracking devices.

Ultra wideband technology

Embracing ultra wideband (UWB) technology

Whilst, as readers may know, ultra wideband (UWB) technology offers speedy,efficient and secure communications, also it has brought much controversy over its use. It is no longer a question of using the technology for linking computers and other electronic devices alone; a variety of other applications have also become possible.

Anyone concerned with privacy issues will already be aware that the technology has produced the extraordinary ability to see through walls up to 8in. thick. This may be regarded as an advantage if you require to track a person's movements through any of our more popular building materials such as brick, concrete or steel.

What UWB does is to use lower-frequency pulses unlike the conventional radar which relies on high-frequency waves to produce fuzzy images. The result is that the clearly defined images can be produced.

A report from the USA says that:

UBW was developed in the United States so their experiences and applications are of importance to the rest of the world. US reports say that:

The misuse of the new technology has already hit the media and some of its potential uses have produced great concern. The American Civil Liberties Union,for example, is concerned that the technology will be used by police conducting a “high tech strip search”. Its use for airport security is also under attack.

The great benefits of UBW have also been highlighted and companies developing UBW devices, such as the US Time Domain Corporation, Alabama, are looking for its widespread introduction.

A replacement for mobile phones?

We are told that the next generation of internet-connected mobile phones could be replaced by UWB designed systems. UWB does not require a costly delicate radio frequency or new infrastructure, instead it is able to send short pulses of data across a wide range of the allocated radio spectrum. In consequence it could offer fast and powerful signals that are almost impossible to intercept. Although the signals, we are told, are currently only able to travel some 30 feet, which is much less than the present wireless “home networks” they are strong enough to carry high-quality video and audio. As a result companies involved with cable-television see UWB as a technology that will enable them to enormously increase the bandwidth that is available.

Forecasts. It will be the chip companies that will accelerate the growth of UWB. Many computer technology companies have plans to build in this new technology into their chips. Many UBW devices based on this technology will be marketed in the coming years. One forecast given by the US market analysts. Advanced Strategies for Integrated Solutions says that there will be 274 million UBW devices based on this technology available for use within the next 5 years.

Concerns for UWB – based products. There is concern about the unrestricted use of UWB devices. Claims, for example that their use will pose safety risks to aircraft have already been made. It is also pointed out that UWB could interfere with transmissions of the global positioning system (GPS)network of satellites. This system is already very sensitive to interference and a number of organisations have expressed their concern, which may lead to them being banned in certain areas and applications.

The UK's Civil Aviation Authority has said that:

In the US it is reported that UWB devices have disabled collision avoidance systems which warn the pilot of an aircraft of the presence of converging aircraft and the instrument landing systems that guide aircraft to runways in bad weather. This research is, however, ongoing and at the moment the Civil Aviation Authority do not regard the tests that have been carried out in the USA as necessarily conclusive.

Decisions will have to be made quite soon on whether to ban such devices in certain environments since the first of such devices are due to appear by the end of 2003. Although UWB was developed by the military researchers some 30 years ago it was only approved for commercial development by the US telecoms regulator in February 2002.

Until this technology meets the most stringent requirements for aviation safety devices based on UWB may be banned on aircraft or controlled in the same way as some current electronic products.

Biocybernetics

New technology detects DVT

Smart seats.The development of a new technology will enable people who are in danger of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) to receive warnings. Although DVT can, we are told, occur when anyone is inactive for long periods it is currently the subject of intense research by the airlines. This new technology aims at equipping the seats in an aeroplane with devices that can detect the signs of the condition.

Sensors are built into the seats to monitor the posture of passengers or the degree of inactivity that puts them in danger of potentially fatal blood clots.

It is alleged that some 50 passengers are known to have died of what has been described as the “Economy Class Syndrome” causing growing fears of a link between flying and DVT. Some medical experts have already pointed out that any form of inactivity can produce DVT symptoms. Long spells of driving a vehicle without breaks or even sitting for long periods at a desk without exercise are, but, some of the examples given. Others suggest that DVT on flights is not confined to Economy Class alone. Even so sitting in cramped conditions for hours is thought to increase the risk of complications both during and after a flight.

As a result this new technology will be particularly welcomed by passengers and airlines alike.

State of the art sensors. We now have state-of-the art sensors that can be built into seats, clothes or indeed any ordinary everyday object. They are already in use in the development of “smart” car seats to control the safety systems such as airbags. These “smart fabrics”contain thousands of tiny electronic components. What allows the systems to be constructed is the discovery by UK scientists of a new way of producing carbon-coated nylon or polyester fibres which can conduct electricity. Small batteries are linked to the fabric so that miniature circuit boards can be powered.

Chris Chapman who is the co-founder of the UK-based company, ElekSen, which has pioneered the technology, says that:

Developing the smart fabric. ElekSen has a 30 strong team which has spent more than 3 years and £6 million developing the fabric.

The Civil Aviation Authority has, we are told, expressed interest in the product but has indicated that it must face rigorous safety tests before it could be used by the airlines.

Researchers in biocybernetics, will, already know of the dangers of DVT and indeed it is reported that British Airways is among 30 airlines which may be facing multi-million pound insurance claims from the families of DVT victims.

Although the product has yet to be fully developed and tested in the various environments where it could be used, there is no doubt of the need for such an innovative system. Numerous applications have already been discussed by the pioneering scientists who see the material used, for example, as “cloth keyboards”, or “interactive clothing” and even in hospitals,where it is suggested the cloth could be made into hospital sheets that can monitor a patients state. It has been reported that the technology is now so advanced that keyboards made of the “smart” cloth are now available for as little as £100.

The development of such smart systems will not only cause changes in manufacturing processes but also in the way in which humans can be monitored and the way in which they can also control the environment in which they exist.

Examining human behaviour

Automating behaviour researches. We can learn a great deal by examining human behaviour which may be one of the most obvious remarks that we can make. Unfortunately in many scenarios we have failed to do this. Now,however, it is becoming more and more acceptable that such examinations are more revealing than we first believed. Suddenly new systems have been designed to examine the behaviour of airline passengers before they are allowed on flights. Customs officers now study the behaviour of those entering in country. Football supporters are now carefully monitored using CCTV as are the crowds in demonstrations in the hope that facial expressions and bodily movements might give some indication of their possible action and reaction. These are, ofcourse,only some of the many examples of behavioural monitoring using, human analysis from digital images or, exceptionally at present, where computer systems are harnessed to assist. The breakthrough in human facial recognition systems and facial expression analysis has enabled many behavioural scientists to produce some quite remarkable analysis applications many of which like image-recognition monitoring has become computer system oriented. Their importance in designing and operating fail/ safe systems, particularly in the public transport systems,is encouraging. The actions of a public transport driver of a train, bus or car can be monitored so that his/her behaviour can be predicted. Facial expressions heart rate, etc. can provide a great deal of information and a warning that action needs to be taken, perhaps to avert an impending disaster. A very unusual system that has recently been highlighted is one that will help predict criminal activity by using computers that can analyse human behaviour.

Behaviour prediction. The idea of predicting behaviour say, before a criminal carries out a crime was discussed at the British Machine Vision Conference held at Cardiff University (September 2002).

The strategy put forward for this form of behavioural analysis was to develop cameras that can look on to a person standing still for an unusually long time in a crowd. It is reported that studies have shown that such “furtive”behaviour is associated with the build-up to crimes such as muggings or assaults and also with attempted suicides on the London Underground. Dr Paul Rosen of Cardiff's (UK) Computer Science Department said that:

Although the technology is said to be at the development stage, it is expected to be available within 5 years. The production of the cluster of lenses that records the numerous images and then compares them for movement has been based on an insect's compound eye. A spokesperson for the London Underground said that they carry more than 3 million people a day and have probably more CCTV cameras installed than anywhere else in the world, so we are well aware of the new technology. The cameras are not only needed, we are told, for crime prevention but also to keep watch on the system, a task that could not be accomplished without them even with a very large staff.

It is reported that London Underground has to deal with over 100 suicide attempts each year. The closed-circuit-television cameras being developed at Cardiff University Computer Science department may well help this, and possibly other railway companies, to combat what is a real problem which not only involves the loss of life or injury but also involves great disruption of services.

Obviously, this concept discussed at the British Machine Vision Conference amongst many other systems involving behavioural analysis of humans can yield worthwhile dividends in so many areas where such promising applications are being developed.

Researchers in biocybernetics will see these advances as positive steps forward in the application of their interdisciplinary work.

Advances in software development

Software testing

Introduction of new testing tools. The manual testing of software can never catch all the errors, so can automation help? David Norfolk looks at the pros and cons of automated testing in an article published in The Computer Bulletin Vol. 4 Part 2, 2002, pp24. One of the main problems of introducing automation to the software production and testing process is that it requires proven methods of specification, that includes both syntactic and semantic considerations of the language interface. This means the problem to be communicated to the system has to be well-defined. Finally, it is desirable that the resulting programs can be proved. Each one of these requirements is still very much in its early stages of research development. The result is that a compromise has to reached on all of these stages of the process of creating and testing software. David Norfolk sensibly concentrates on software testing that involves considering all possible paths and combinations of paths through a realistically large program. He writes that:

As a result he concludes that:

• you cannot afford to run tests that do not find defects, so structured testing plans that maximise the chances are vital, and

• automation, to maximise the use of resources, makes a lot of sense –but only if the automation fits the demands of the structured test plan.

Automated testing goes back to earlier keystroke recording utilities. We are told that if you record the keystrokes made by someone entering a test case you can rerun the test case at very little cost, perhaps to check that a defect that caused the test to fail on its initial run has now been fixed. In fact we have a stored regression test that can be run after any code maintenance, to ensure that unexpected errors have not been introduced elsewhere in the program while part of it was being changed. It is shown that an important facility in any automated testing tool is repository of test specifications. These, we are told,can be developed early before coding, and used to develop “what if”scenarios for validating requirements specifications and so on. The article describes an interesting new application of automated testing in extreme programming. The author says that every:

In addition to giving advice the author also provides some warnings. Traditional automated tools have been weak at the early stages. The situation David Norfolk reports is improving:

Development of automated software testing. There is no doubt that automated testing is set to expand in scope. We all know that the large commercial systems have run routine test transactionsm, for example, since the early days of computing. In looking at future trends we are informed that:

Of most interest to those who are developing and testing software in cybernetics and systems is obtaining information about the progress of “pattern matching programs” and the evolution of mathematically based development methods, and tools to produce probably correct software components for building systems. The use of these methods has been discussed in the literature but it is useful to be updated with the report on their use in significantly sizable systems. These were described recently by a spokesperson from Praxis (www.praxis-cs.co.uk) who reported that:

Software projects

Software projects high failure rate. In the United Kingdom the number of failures of IT projects is causing a great deal of concern. Many of the projects in question are multi-million pound (sterling) systems that are required to update or change existing systems, many of them established and regarded as essential for public administration at a national level. Others involve industry and commerce where it is essential that new initiatives are supported by new software developments. In the British Computer Society Review (2001) a survey of some 1,027 mainly private sectors showed that only 130 or 12.7 per cent succeeded. As far as software development projects are concerned of more than 500 projects surveyed only three were regarded as having succeeded. We are told in the London Times (14 August 2002) that a similar situation exists in the United States. Correspondence in this newspaper attempted to give reasons for this dismal and worrying failure. One letter from Professor Martyn Thomas, a visiting professor of software engineeering at the UK's Oxford University Computing Laboratory highlighted some of the main reasons. Professor Thomas wrote:

He echoes what so many project designers believe, that is, that the global software industry regards software development as a “craft that requires only technician level skills”. There has to be a complete change in the way that such projects are handled and in the way in which the software is produced. Unless this happens, as Professor Thomas says, “... projects will continue to suffer massive delays and cost overruns”.

For such a change to occur we need to analyse very carefully all the reasons for failure. When billions of pounds are spent worldwide we do need to consider very urgently what the roots of our failures are and much information about them can only be obtained by examination of both those projects that have been successful and those that have failed so miserably.

Microscopic microchips

Microscopic microchips were a hoax

As soon as doubt was cast on the researches of Dr Jan Hendrik Schön,senior editors of the world's leading scientific journals reviewed their peer-review processes for the publication of scientific research. A report in the London Times newspaper (September 2002) said that:

We are told that in the past 2 years alone Dr Schön had produced 80 publications, many of which were featured in specialist journals such asScience and Nature. The physical sciences editor of Nature is reported as saying that it was possible that Dr Schön's results would have been treated with greater scepticism had he worked for a more obscure company or university. A higher degree of trust would have been placed in dealings with a known quantity than with unkown ones. Both these two journals said that there was little they could do to prevent publishing fraudulent papers altogether. They believe that in the peer-review system the assumption is that the data is correct, and it is to examine whether conclusions drawn from the data itself are justified or not and whether the data itself is accurate.

Dr Schön was a researcher at the Bell Laboratories where scientists invented the transistor, the laser, the mobile telephone, and the UNIX computer operating system. He was chosen to design and build a series of complex experiments to see if single crystals of organic material could act as transistors for computers after previous attempts had failed. The ability to use organic materials such as plastic, to build computer chips is considered to be the next most important challenge in electronics. Such plastic chips would cost a fraction of silicon chips and could be printed like barcodes onto all kinds of disposable products. Now that the claims have been refuted the challenge remains although some good may come out of the situation since other laboratories immediately began to conduct similar experiments on organic materials as soon as Dr Schön's researches were published. This is, of course, a setback to research in this area and also an enormous blow to scientists whose integrity had always been taken for granted.

This journal continues to place its trust in its contributors, but like its fellow leading publications has reminded its reviewers that even in the cybernetics and systems communities there may be authors who in their haste to publish may not be as rigorous in their researches as they should be.

B. H. RudallNorbert Wiener Institute and University of Wales (UK)