Assessing job satisfaction for seafarers Open Access

Seafarers work and live in a confined environment, a ship, in which they interact with the same people for weeks or months, away and often isolated, from friends and family. These conditions create a unique work and social context that can put seafarer job satisfaction (SJS) and happiness at risk (Divine et al., 2020; Pantouvakis and Vlachos, 2020; Vlachos et al., 2024). Indeed, the Seafarer Happiness Index (SHI) revealed that SJS and overall happiness declined to an eight-year low in 2022 and remain low to this day, threatening the quality of work life, workplace well-being, mental health and job performance of seafarers, as well as seafarers' retention and attractiveness of the seafaring profession (Seafarer Happiness Index, 2023 Q3). Therefore, it is not surprising that the question “What are the aspects of the work environment that can influence and improve SJS?” still remains open (Vlachos et al., 2024).

Prior studies have examined several determinants of SJS, such as access to natural light and adequate living space (Ashkanasy et al., 2014; Matsangas and Shattuck, 2021), availability of recreation facilities and time (Fan et al., 2019), onboard work environment and sense of belongingness (Vlachos et al., 2024), team cohesion, supportive work environment (Pantouvakis et al., 2024) and job autonomy (Forsyth, 1990). Nonetheless, most of these studies do not adopt a particular theoretical framework, and they all focus on the actual level of SJS (i.e. how ship management companies perform in providing a satisfactory work environment) without considering what is really important to seafarers. As Locke (1976) suggests, employees evaluate their job aspects and shape their job satisfaction (JS) level based on what is important to them in the context of a person's value hierarchy of needs and on what is important to change within a workplace. Consequently, previous research has failed to uncover solid evidence-based practical recommendations for effective human resource management (HRM) interventions.

To address these gaps, the present study adopts behaviour setting and job attachment theories to identify key work environment factors that affect SJS, classifying them into two main categories: ship or workplace and social or company environment factors. Behaviour setting theory (Barker, 1978) supports the idea that ship or workplace environment characteristics – such as internet availability, workload, food quality, recreation facilities and time off for relaxation – can shape employee attitudes and consequently are expected to play a key role in determining JS. According to attachment theory, factors that contribute to attaching, bonding and embedding oneself in groups and companies are important determinants of JS. In line with this perspective, the social or company work environment factors – such as communication with headquarters, fairness, T&D opportunities, relationships with colleagues, well-being, salary and/or financial stability, workplace recognition, feedback and involvement in decision-making – can also be considered as key SJS.

Moreover, multi-criteria satisfaction analysis (MUSA) (Grigoroudis et al., 2002; Grigoroudis and Siskos, 2010), a method that integrates multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and importance-performance analysis (IPA), was applied to facet and overall JS data collected from 211 Greek seafarers. The analysis reveals (1) the JS factors that matter to seafarers and contribute to their overall JS the most and (2) the aspects of the work environment that can offer an advantage to ship management companies regarding SJS or threaten them, thus calling for immediate improvements. Thus, the theoretical framework that was adopted, along with the application of MUSA, promotes a new perspective on the study of SJS and the HRM practice in the maritime industry.

In conclusion, the aim of this study is threefold. First, to identify the ship or workplace and social or company aspects of the work environment that are most valued by seafarers; second, to examine the contribution of these factors to overall SJS and third, to provide guidelines for effective evidence-based HRM interventions aiming to boost overall SJS by considering the importance of key work environment aspects for seafarers as well as the companies' performance regarding these aspects.

Broadly speaking, JS refers to how people feel, their emotional reaction to their job (overall JS) and its specific aspects (facet JS; Judge et al., 2017). Job satisfaction is an important organisational variable that has been linked to an array of positive employee attitudes and behaviours such as organisational commitment, well-being, job performance, work engagement, work identification, retention and the attractiveness of a profession (Tavacioglu et al., 2019; Vlachos et al., 2024).

Earlier research in the maritime industry suggests that various personal (e.g. education and age) and occupational factors (e.g. status on board, crew stability and length of employment on board), as well as external (e.g. family and children and macroeconomic environment) and internal (e.g. access to welfare services and time of exposure to the seafaring life) variables, may affect SJS (see Forsyth, 1990; Slišković, 2023; Slišković and Penezić, 2015; Yuen et al., 2018).

Another way to organise the important SJS contributors would be to relate them to the ship or workplace and the social or company environments (Vlachos et al., 2024), an approach also adopted in the present study. The ship or workplace factors can be justified by the behaviour setting theory (Barker, 1978), which promotes the idea that the physical workplace factors – acting as functionalities or restrictions – may be powerful predictors of SJS. Seafarers work in a unique physical environment, a specific and confined setting, i.e. on a vessel. They suffer from challenging conditions that relate to, among others, long working hours, shift work and watch-keeping, poor sleep quality, physical hazards resulting from travelling for months on long deep-sea journeys and physical factors such as noise and vibration. Behaviour setting studies in the maritime industry context have highlighted sufficient living space, temperature, humidity, working hours, free and unlimited Internet, recreational activities, good-quality food and safety on board as factors that considerably affect SJS (see, e.g. Ashkanasy et al., 2014; Baştuğ et al., 2020; Da Silva et al., 2011; Fan et al., 2019; Krystosik-Gromadzinska, 2018; Österman et al., 2020; Peplińska et al., 2013; Patchiappane and Rengamani, 2018; Pantouvakis et al., 2024; Vlachos et al., 2024).

The JS factors that relate to the social or company environment have also been considered by authors in the field, who have borrowed the tenets of attachment theory to put forward the idea that employees build strong connections with other colleagues and their company because these bonds reinforce meaning and satisfaction in their lives (Yip et al., 2018). In the seafaring context, employees have to deal with issues related to socialising and interacting with the same people 24/7 and being away from friends and family for weeks or months (Tsai and Liou, 2017), as well as issues of uncertainty, polyphony and cultural diversity (Jensen and Oldenburg, 2020). Moreover, they need to tackle problems and find solutions in emergencies or unexpected situations that might put the life or safety of all onboard at risk or even risk the loss of very expensive assets (i.e. the vessel and/or its cargo). In this stream of research, the findings have indicated that factors, such as a supportive, inclusive and open-to-communication workplace, emphasis on employee safety, personal and/or career development, work and/or life balance, rewards and/or financial stability, occupational justice, recognition and feedback by superiors, job autonomy and/or participation in the decision process and identification and bonding with colleagues and the company, have been suggested as important social or company environment antecedents of SJS (see, e.g. Forsyth, 1990; McVeigh et al., 2019; Ozdemir et al., 2022; Patchiappane and Rengamani, 2018; Pantouvakis et al., 2024; Slišković and Penezić, 2015; Theotokas et al., 2014; Tsai and Liou, 2017; Sekhon and Srivastav, 2021; Theotokas et al., 2024a, b; Vlachos et al., 2024; Yorulmaz and Kaya Ozbag, 2020; Yuen et al., 2018; Yuen et al., 2020).

Over the past decade, a wide range of research studies from academic or industry researchers, professional bodies and associations have delved into the various determinants of JS within the seafaring context using mostly quantitative, and rarely qualitative, methods. For example, the most established and longest-running study on JS in the shipping industry is the Seafarers Happiness Index, a quarterly survey conducted by the Mission to Seafarers, a nonprofit organisation focusing on the well-being of seafarers. It is an indicative example of a mostly quantitative approach that also incorporates qualitative aspects (open-ended questions) into its methodology. Seafarers were asked to answer key JS questions focusing on connectivity, shore leave, wages, food, health, T&D, interaction, workload and welfare. A 10-point rating scale is used to assess the incorporated JS and/or happiness factors, producing a satisfaction index per question area based on mean scores. A similar quantitative approach has also been adopted in relevant research focused on seafarers' mental health commissioned by the International Transport Workers' Federation Seafarers' Trust and conducted by Yale University in 2019 (Lefkowitz and Slade, 2019). The questionnaire incorporated demographic, occupational and work environment questions, along with questions assessing injuries and illness events, as well as mental health outcomes (symptoms of depression and anxiety).

Additionally, most studies use regression techniques. For example, Forsyth (1990) investigated an array of demographic factors determining variance in levels of SJS using a multiple regression technique on a sample of 302 seafarers, both officers and ratings. Patchiappane and Rengamani (2018) applied regression analysis to explore the impact of job nature, job benefits, work environment, ship-specific factors, managerial and/or organisational culture and social impact factors on the JS of Indian seafarers employed on the vessels of one ship management company in two time frames (reaching 575 and 329 respondents, respectively). Yuen et al. (2018) used regression analysis (structural equation modelling (SEM)) to underline the impact of job characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback), rewards and stress on the JS of 116 seafarers. McVeigh et al. (2019) investigated the relationship between 8 individual and occupational aspects of seafaring on SJS in a sample of 508 employees of one ship management company through regression analysis (SEM). Similarly, Yorulmaz and Kaya Ozbag (2020) studied the impact of three facets of organisational justice (procedural, distributive and interactional) on SJS, generating the findings from regression analysis (SEM) on data collected from 335 respondents. Pantouvakis et al. (2024) aimed to investigate the effect of physical (ship conditions, communication facilities, health and living conditions) and social environment factors (social fit, team cohesion, ship company support and intercultural environment) on SJS in a large sample of seafarers employing multi-group regression analysis. Lastly, Vlachos et al. (2024) used hierarchical regression analysis to uncover the impact of four dimensions of workplace environment (physical, connected, healthy and functional) and belongingness style (secure and avoidant) on a large global sample of seafarers.

In conclusion, the research and methodological approaches to the study of SJS have undoubtedly examined an array of key SJS contributors, providing useful insights to the relevant stakeholders and decision-makers. Nonetheless, these studies fall short of offering a holistic picture of the under-study phenomenon for at least three reasons. Firstly, most of them examine a small, purposive number of SJS factors without adopting a particular theoretical framework to ground their work. Secondly, they all focus on measuring the actual level of JS, i.e. how ship management companies perform in providing a satisfactory vessel or workplace or social or company environment, without considering what really matters to seafarers in terms of their hierarchy of needs. Thirdly, the techniques applied to the data to generate findings do not actually help ship management companies prioritise what is important to their employees or what needs to change immediately to protect SJS. The latest is of utmost value for effective decision-making and targeted evidence-based HRM solutions to boost JS, well-being and retention of employees onboard.

To tackle these issues, the current study attempts to answer the following research questions:

Ten ship management companies facilitated the distribution of the survey instrument (online questionnaire). The companies in the sample were randomly selected from the Greek Shipping Directory ^[1] taking into consideration that they have de facto headquarters in Greece and an established crew department. The crew departments of the sample companies were contacted in January 2023 with the request to distribute the questionnaire to their pool of seafarers. Therefore, the response rate cannot be calculated. The collection took place between February and June 2023. In total, 211 valid questionnaires were received. Non-response bias was checked by comparing early with late respondents and responses among agencies; no bias was detected.

The questionnaire comprised two sections. The first section included questions designed to gather information on the seafarers' personal and sociological profiles, namely gender, age, education level, total years of work experience, years of work experience with their current employers and rank, as well as characteristics of the company they are employed at and the ship they serve or had served on during the last six months. The second section included 14 questions on facet JS and 1 question on overall SJS. Informed consent was achieved through a cover letter that was attached to the questionnaire, explaining the aim of the research and assuring confidentiality and anonymity.

The sample consisted entirely of Greek seafarers working mainly on commercial vessels (80.1%). The respondents were employed by companies of Greek interests and the vessels they were employed upon were registered in Greece or a European Union (EU) member country. The majority of the participants were male (89.1%), in their early or middle adulthood (69.7% in the 26–45 category), non-married (66.8%) and had a rather extensive experience in the profession (65.4% had at least 6 years of experience). Most of the respondents were deck officers (53%), a significant number were engine room officers (38%), 7% were merchant marine academy cadets and 2% defined themselves as ratings. The profile of the respondents is representative of the actual population in terms of gender, age and signing rank (Amitsis, 2023).

To select the key factors of the ship or workplace and social or company environment that could predict overall SJS, we utilised Tucker's (2009) methodological proposal. First, extant research was conducted in the Web of Science and Scopus databases, using the term seafarers and/or seamen job satisfaction and the identified works were thoroughly reviewed (i.e. Ashkanasy et al., 2014; Baştuğ et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2019; Forsyth, 1990; Krystosik- Gromadzinska, 2018; Li et al., 2014; McVeigh et al., 2019; Ozdemir et al., 2022; Pantouvakis et al., 2024; Patchiappane and Rengamani, 2018; Peplińska et al., 2013; Seafarer Happiness Index, 2023 (Q1); Seafarer Happiness Index, 2023 (Q3); Sekhon and Srivastav, 2021; Da Silva et al., 2011; Slišković and Penezić, 2015; Theotokas et al., 2024a, b; Tsai and Liou, 2017; Vlachos et al., 2024; Yorulmaz and Kaya Ozbag, 2020; Yuen et al., 2018; Yuen et al., 2020). A list of 18 SJS items and/or criteria was initially compiled. Two items with the same meaning but different phrasings were then merged, i.e. salary and/or financial security. To make the final list of satisfaction criteria meaningful, three items with insignificant appearances in the literature (i.e. temperature, humidity and lighting) were also excluded. Moreover, face validity was further established by three academics with expertise and influential publications in shipping management or HRM in shipping companies, who independently revised and discussed the SJS items. One of the professors is employed in the Maritime Studies department of the University of Piraeus and the other two in the Department of Shipping, Trade and Transport of the University of the Aegean.

Finally, the items were presented to five seafarers to ensure that they were correctly understood and that they were not controversial or difficult to answer. In total, 14 criteria were maintained and organised as ship or workplace (i.e. Internet access, workload, food quality, recreation facilities and time off for relaxation) and social or workplace environment (i.e. communication with headquarters, fairness, T&D opportunities, relationships with colleagues, well-being, salary and/or financial security, recognition, feedback and involvement in decision-making). Respondents were asked to evaluate these aspects and their overall JS using a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

The MUSA method was applied to analyse the data. As an MCDA-IPA technique, MUSA adopts a preference disaggregation approach that allows for quantifying the measurement of satisfaction while incorporating the qualitative element of participants' evaluations (Grigoroudis and Siskos, 2002, 2010; Grigoroudis et al., 2002; Angilella et al., 2014). The method's core objective is to maximise consistency between the inferred value function $Y*$ and the expressed judgements $Y$ of the subjects.

To achieve this, a double-error formulation is employed within an ordinal regression context, the following ordinal regression equation (Grigoroudis and Siskos, 2010; Mihelis et al., 2001):

where

• $Y~*$ = the estimation of the global satisfaction function;

• $n$ = the number of criteria;

• $bi$ = the weight of the i-th criterion;

• $Χi*$ = the marginal value of the $xik$ satisfaction level;

• $σ+$ = the overestimation error, and

• $σ−$ = the underestimation error.

The global and partial satisfaction $Y*$ and $Xi*$ are monotone functions normalised in the interval [0.100]. Therefore, to decrease the magnitude of the mathematical model, the monotonicity constraints for $Y*$ and $Xi*$ are removed using the following transformation equations:

where

• $y*m$ = the value of the $ym$ satisfaction level;

• $xi*k$ = the value of the $xik$ satisfaction level;

• $α$ = the number of the global satisfaction level, and

• $αi$ = the number of the partial satisfaction level.

Based on these definitions and assumptions, the primary estimation model can be expressed as a linear program formulation:

where

• $M$ = the size of the respondents' sample and

• $xij$⁠, $yj$ = the j-th level on which variables $Xi$ and $Y$ are estimated.

In this study, SJS was approached as a multivariate analysis issue. It was hypothesised that overall SJS is shaped by a set of variables relating to facet satisfaction with ship or workplace and social or company environment characteristics (i.e. workload, support from supervisor). This pool of criteria is indicated as X = (X1, X2, …, Xn), where each criterion i is linked to a monotonic variable Xi. The importance of each criterion ranges from 0% to 100%, indicating the criterion's contribution to overall SJS (see Figure 1).

By combining the weights (i.e. the importance of each JS facet to overall SJS) with average satisfaction scores (i.e. seafarers' assessment of their employer's performance in each area), action diagrams can be produced. These visual tools (see Figure 2) identify the strong and weak points of SJS (similar to a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT)-type analysis) by plotting the criteria across four quadrants. The horizontal axis shows the importance (weights) of the criterion for seafarers' overall JS, while the vertical axis reflects their satisfaction level (employers' performance).

These quadrants offer strategic insights and directions for action:

1. Status quo (low importance-low satisfaction and/or performance): Criteria in this quadrant indicate facets with low seafarer satisfaction but limited importance. Therefore, they do not call for immediate intervention.

2. Transfer resources (low importance-high satisfaction and/or performance): The low importance of the JS aspects in this quadrant suggests that further investment is not necessary.

3. Leverage opportunity (high importance-high satisfaction and/or performance): Factors in this quadrant highlight the aspects of the work environment that employees value the most and the company performs well. They are the key strengths of an organisation as an employer and can offer a competitive employer advantage.

4. Action opportunity (high importance-low satisfaction and/or performance): Criteria in this quadrant are critical areas that demand urgent attention, as they represent aspects where the company is underperforming.

A notable strength of the MUSA method lies in its ability to present findings in a simple, easy-to-understand visual way (see Figures 1 and 2). This feature enables decision-makers to easily interpret results and prioritise areas for JS enhancement. Additionally, MUSA can support the effective allocation of a (shipping) company's resources by identifying areas where interventions will be most impactful.

The presentation of the MUSA results is organised according to the research aims, which are also reflected in RQ2 and RQ3.

Figure 1 illustrates the importance (weights) of the examined JS facets in the overall SJS. Relationships with colleagues are the most important contributor to overall SJS (weight = 54.57%), followed by T&D (weight = 7.04%). This finding adds to the discussion around the importance of the social features of the work and bonding with colleagues in SJS and in reinforcing meaning and satisfaction in seafarers' lives (Yip et al., 2018). Indeed, in the confined ship environment, colleagues become the significant others with whom seafarers interact 24/7, face loneliness and trust with their lives (see, e.g. Tekleab et al., 2016; Vlachos et al., 2024). Salary and/or financial stability (weight = 5.25%), well-being (weight = 4.90) and fairness (weight = 4.74%) have also been found to be significant. In line with this result is the finding of the SHI (2024 Q1), which reveals seafarers' concerns regarding the stagnant wages amid rising living costs. It is noteworthy that the aspects of the social or company environment are the major contributors to SJS.

On the other hand, workload (weight = 1.62%), recreation facilities (weight = 1.62%) and time off (weight = 1.74%) seem to be the least important contributors. It is interesting that although these ship or workplace factors appear to be among the most problematic aspects of seafaring (Seafarers Happiness Index, 2024 Q1; Krystosik-Gromadzinska, 2018), they are not that important in shaping SJS.

Decision-makers in the maritime industry cannot make informed decisions to enhance overall SJS levels if they rely solely on insights into which aspects of the work environment are considered important. Equally essential is an understanding of seafarers' perceptions of their companies' actual performance regarding these attributes – knowledge of not just what matters but also of what is important to change right now (Locke, 1976). Therefore, to advance the clarity and actionable interpretation of the results presented earlier, the action diagram shown in Figure 2 was generated using MUSA software.

An analysis of Figure 2 indicates the strong and weak points within the SJS landscape. For instance, positive relationships with colleagues and T&D emerge as strong factors in SJS. Positioned in the leverage opportunity quadrant, these social or company environment facets are not only highly valued by seafarers but are also areas where ship management companies are performing highly. While no urgent action is necessary in these aspects, it is crucial that shipping companies continue to monitor and sustain performance, as they represent competitive strengths in their employer–employee relationship.

Meanwhile, well-being, recognition, fairness and workload fall within the transfer resources quadrant, though near the leverage opportunity boundary. These areas currently receive high satisfaction ratings from seafarers, yet they are perceived as relatively less important. Therefore, further investment in these aspects is not a priority. Instead, shipping companies may consider reallocating attention and resources towards factors with a higher potential impact on overall SJS.

Lastly, seafarer satisfaction factors such as feedback from supervisors, food quality and recreation facilities are located in the status quo quadrant. They are features of the work environment where seafarers report low satisfaction, but they are also seen as less important at present. Although no urgent action is required, they call for close monitoring by ship management companies and ship management teams. Any change in perceptions could easily reposition them into the action opportunity quadrant, where immediate managerial action would be needed.

In the complex and increasingly fluxual contemporary environment, JS is vital for safeguarding workplace well-being, retention and performance (Divine et al., 2020). Nonetheless, prior studies have failed to approach SJS holistically and base their approach on well-accepted organisational behaviour and HRM theories. The present study, based on behaviour setting and job attachment theories and accepting Locke's (1976) approach to importance in relation to JS, empirically traces and explores the contribution of key ship or workplace and social or company determinants of SJS to overall SJS. Moreover, the application of MUSA on the data uncovers the strong and weak points of SJS and permits effective decision-making and evidence-based interventions by ship management companies.

The findings of this study (see Figure 1) highlight the significant role of the social or company environment factors – such as relationships with colleagues, opportunities for T&D, well-being, fairness, financial stability, recognition, supervisor feedback, involvement in decision-making and communication with headquarters – in SJS. Consistent with job attachment theory, the extent to which seafarers link, bond and attach themselves to their colleagues and the company itself significantly enhances their JS level (Tekleab et al., 2016).

Equitable human resource policies are essential for providing a demanding work environment on a commercial vessel. These practices not only guarantee financial stability but also support personal development, empower crew members and cultivate a culture of feedback (Tsai and Liou, 2017; Yorulmaz and Basol, 2024). Positive interactions with senior officers and colleagues can further contribute to a cohesive onboard atmosphere. Such an environment enables seafarers to establish strong interpersonal bonds with co-workers, adapt more smoothly to the physical and social aspects of ship life and develop a strong professional identity, which they are reluctant to sacrifice (Jiang et al., 2012; Akdere and Egan, 2020).

This significant finding is in line with the outcomes of the SHI (2024 Q1) report and other recent studies (see, e.g. Pantouvakis et al., 2024) suggested that the highest SJS levels come from seafarers who enjoy their work because of the positive relationships they build on board with their colleagues, the sense of camaraderie that is created and maintained, the company's investment in training programmes that help them improve and feel more confident and motivated and the support they receive from ashore. It is worth mentioning that the social or company environment factors concentrate on the transfer resources (marginally) and leverage opportunity quadrants (see Figure 2). Thus, acknowledging the human factor in seafaring and actively pursuing strategies that guarantee that the seafarers' intellectual needs are attended can offer a competitive advantage in the labour market (Akdere and Ega, 2020; Yorulmaz and Basol, 2024). Therefore, ship management companies that perform better in terms of the social or company environment SJS factors provide a more rewarding seafaring experience and could eventually become the preferred employers among seafarers (Progoulaki and Theotokas, 2016; Yorulmaz and Karabacak, 2021).

On the other hand, the ship or workplace environment factors, like internet availability, food quality, recreation facilities and time off and/or workload, seem to contribute less to overall SJS and are the factors that concentrate on the status quo quadrant but are also very close to the action opportunity quadrant. Therefore, it could be claimed that they act more like hygiene factors, i.e. factors that may lead to dissatisfaction if not present. Indeed, in terms of the behaviour setting theory, which hypothesises that the physical “shipscape” environment (Vlahos et al., 2024, p. 298), if healthy and functional, has a strong effect on human behaviour, and in accordance with relevant studies in the field, the ship or workplace factors seem to be the more problematic aspects of seafaring (Seafarers Happiness Index, 2024 Q1). Consequently, they operate as restrictions that constraints the environment-person fit (Sampson and Ellis, 2020) and often overshadow positivity, leading to physical strains, psychological stress and dissatisfaction (see, e.g. Seafarers Happiness Index, 2024 Q1; Krystosik-Gromadzinska, 2018; Slišković and Penezić, 2015). The above findings also have significant theoretical and managerial contributions.

The present study responded to the call of researchers to enrich and theorise the research on SJS. Towards this direction, the authors borrow the tenants of behaviour setting theory, job attachment theory and Locke's (1976) synthesis of JS theories to contribute to the relevant research. More precisely, this work offers new insights into the shipping management and HRM literature and practice through a holistic and “sophisticated” examination of overall SJS patterns. This is achieved through the use of an MCDA-IPA method for the generation of the results. As already described, by applying the MUSA methodology, overall SJS was approached as a business “problem” (e.g. how to improve SJS), assuming that its optimal solution involves intervention regarding multiple criteria and/or aspects. In the present study, these criteria incorporate facets of the ship or workplace and the social or company environment that contribute to SJS and consequently to the experience of seafarers and their retention in the profession. MUSA's weights output (see Figure 1) underlined the differing importance of specific JS facets to overall SJS and underscored, as the job attachment theory predicts, the role of social or company environment factors in SJS. Therefore, the findings of the present work provide support for the predictive power of job attachment theory in the seafaring context and for the claim that seafarers tend to highly value the social or company aspects of their work (Pantouvakis et al., 2024). This is a logical result since seafarers spend continuous months employed on board a vessel, and the social or company environment is expected to be of high value to them.

Building upon the aforementioned findings, the outcome of the IPA (SWOT-type analysis; Figure 2) offers an in-depth understanding of the critical elements of the work environment aspects that might facilitate the individual seafarer-workplace match. The IPA analysis helped incorporate both meanings of importance to JS provided by Locke into the SJS literature (1976): (1) what is important in the context of seafarers' value hierarchy (criteria weights-contribution to overall SJS; see Figure 1) and (2) what is important to change right now (directions provided from action diagrams; see Figure 2). Therefore, it is possible to design more effective and/or targeted interventions to boost overall SJS and improve retention of in-service seafarers.

Shipping industry leaders and decision-makers in the broader maritime sector must be aware of the key issues that determine the acceptability of an individual's work environment. The findings of this research reveal the important aspects (i.e. the social or company environment factors) of SJS and the level of shipping companies' performance in relation to them. Therefore, they assist practitioners in the sector in making effective decisions and designing valuable interventions to improve the quality of seafarers' work environment and consequently SJS and work and home life happiness. Moreover, the present study highlights the significance of providing T&D opportunities, offering recognition, and ensuring fairness in the seafaring context. The T&D of the maritime workforce becomes particularly relevant in terms of the new skills, mindset and culture required in the face of the contemporary digitalised environment in maritime business (Theotokas et al., 2024a, b). Therefore, companies in the maritime sector are advised to invest in these key aspects of the work environment and actively incorporate and communicate them in their value proposition to both current and prospective employees. For example, they can regularly train their seafarers using a wide range of programmes such as professional development, coaching, and 360-feedback and utilise digital technologies onboard to improve day-to-day work (Vlachos et al., 2024). Additionally, employers should promote a climate of respect towards cultural, social and personal diversity, enforce zero tolerance against aggressive behaviours and put effort into developing leaders both onboard and ashore that empower and support seafarers. Moreover, through a clear development and career plan and recognition from the company's management, the image of the seafaring profession could be enhanced and, consequently, a feeling of belongingness and pride within the seafaring community would be fostered (Yuen et al., 2018; Autsadee et al., 2024). Thus, by taking these actions, ship management companies can enhance the public image of seafaring, making it more respectable and prestigious. Moreover, consideration should be paid to the fair treatment of employees. The latter requires that shipping companies should establish an evaluation mechanism and provide a fair and competitive work environment (Li et al., 2014; Yorulmaz and Basol, 2024; Ben Moallem et al., 2025).

Another important consideration is that the ship or workplace SJS elements can act as potential dissatisfaction triggers. To mitigate this risk, employers need to be proactive in constructing a functional onboard environment that boosts seafarers' well-being. This can incorporate practical measures such as providing free and unlimited Internet access, organising recreational activities and providing a variety of good-quality food options (Sampson and Ellis, 2020). Improving the onboard workplace, i.e. the “shipscape”, is essential for attracting a younger workforce, female seafarers and highly talented officers.

Finally, leaders in the shipping industry are strongly advised to periodically review their company's performance regarding seafarers' JS. This can be effectively achieved through the use of MCDA tools like the MUSA method, which allow evaluation of both the ship or workplace and the social or company environment, as well as shifts in the perceived importance of various JS factors. Such ongoing evaluations are important in making well thought-out and optimal decisions that guarantee long-term SJS.

Furthermore, policymakers need to closely collaborate with seafarers and establish multi-stakeholder partnerships. These alliances should focus on investing in initiatives that improve the quality of seafarers' lives and working conditions across the industry.

This study has a number of strengths: it is an empirical study that explored a topic (i.e. SJS patterns) that is constantly called upon for empirical research; it collected data from randomly selected participants who represent the seafaring profession in Greece; it contributes to the line of research on factors influencing SJS and the strong and weak points of SJS. It does so by applying MUSA, a method that combines MCDA and IPA. However, the study investigates a certain number of key SJS concepts based on an extensive literature review. Future research could explore additional factors that influence SJS and/or happiness to gain a deeper understanding of seafarers' job satisfaction patterns. This could encompass not only aspects related to their work experiences and overall well-being at sea but also their perceptions of the comparative work conditions between seafarers and land-based workers. Additionally, since the focus of our research was on shipping management companies of Greek interests and the sample consists only of Greek seafarers, research with a larger sample and a longitudinal and cross-country component would allow the investigation of the relationship between important JS criteria across countries (Pantouvakis et al., 2024). Also, seafarers may have different aspirations and needs according to their gender, nationality, career stage, professional growth or personal needs, among others (see, e.g. Progoulaki and Theotokas, 2016; Pantouvakis et al., 2024). Therefore, an analysis of data based on demographic or personal criteria could provide more in-depth knowledge of SJS. This, in turn, would support more informed decisions regarding actions to enhance job satisfaction across different seafarer groups.

The project involves human participants and adheres to the code of ethics of the Code of Ethics and Good Practice of the University of the Aegean and the principles of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.

All participants provided informed consent prior to completing the survey.