Leveling the playing field: the role of education in reducing socioeconomic inequality - a qualitative case study from Punjab, Pakistan

Socioeconomic inequality remains one of the most persistent challenges globally, with far-reaching effects on education, career opportunities and overall life outcomes. According to recent studies, education is often regarded as a primary means of reducing inequality, as it can offer individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds the skills and knowledge necessary to improve their socioeconomic status (Nurse and Melhuish, 2021). However, despite its potential, the relationship between education and socioeconomic mobility is complex. In many cases, students from low-income families face significant barriers to accessing quality education, which can limit their opportunities for upward mobility. As education systems worldwide continue to evolve (Tyagi et al., 2021), it is essential to critically examine the role education plays in either mitigating or exacerbating socioeconomic inequality (Schmidt et al., 2015). In Pakistan, socioeconomic inequality remains a critical challenge, with widespread poverty and limited access to quality education impacting employment, health and social mobility (Durrani et al., 2017). Education serves as a key tool to bridge this gap, promoting equity and offering pathways out of poverty.

Despite progress in expanding education access, Pakistan faces significant disparities in quality and resources across regions. According to UNESCO, around 22.8 million children aged 5–16 years are out of school, with the highest dropout rates occurring among girls and children from rural and economically disadvantaged areas (Khalid, 2023). A large gap exists between urban and rural education, with children in rural areas often facing underfunded schools, inadequate teaching staff and limited access to digital learning tools (Edwards et al., 2024). The education system, largely influenced by socioeconomic status, determines the future opportunities of young people. Families from higher socioeconomic strata can afford to send their children to private schools with better infrastructure, teaching quality and learning resources (Farooq et al., 2017). Meanwhile, those from low-income backgrounds often have no choice but to rely on public schools, which struggle with overcrowded classrooms, outdated curriculum and a lack of trained teachers (Memon, 2007). Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore the perceptions of students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan regarding the role of education in enhancing their social and economic mobility. In addition, the study seeks to examine teachers’ perceptions of the barriers and opportunities within Pakistan’s education system that affect the academic success and upward mobility of these students. The following research questions were formulated to guide this study:

The study is anchored in contemporary sociological theories of social mobility and social capital, which provide critical insight into how education can both alleviate and reproduce socioeconomic inequality. These frameworks guide the exploration of educational structures, student, teacher’ experiences and systemic barriers, offering a comprehensive lens through which to interpret qualitative data.

Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or groups to move up or down the socioeconomic ladder, and education has long been positioned as a key driver of upward mobility (Brown, 2017). Classical functionalist perspectives view education as a meritocratic institution that promotes equal opportunity based on achievement (Tašner and Gaber, 2021). However, this view has been challenged by contemporary theorists who emphasize the role of structural constraints. Reichelt et al. (2019) argue that despite expanded educational access, intergenerational mobility remains limited, particularly among disadvantaged populations, due to persistent inequalities in access to quality education and labor market returns. Kamphuis et al. (2015) theory of cultural capital offers a powerful critique of the meritocratic narrative. He argues that students from privileged backgrounds possess linguistic styles, cultural knowledge and dispositions aligned with institutional expectations, which are often misrecognized as “merit.” These embedded advantages reproduce social class hierarchies, even in systems formally designed to promote mobility. More recent studies reinforce the notion that structural inequalities in education are deeply connected to class-based differences in parenting styles, school engagement and institutional support (Gupta, 2023; Holloway et al., 2024).

Moreover, social capital, broadly defined as the resources embedded within social relationships and networks, plays a crucial role in shaping educational outcomes (Mishra, 2020). Yang (2017) emphasizes that social capital within the family such as parental involvement, norms and trust supports student achievement and persistence. In contrast, Mikiewicz (2021) distinguishes between bonding social capital (supportive ties within homogeneous groups) and bridging social capital (connections across diverse groups), both of which influence access to information, support and opportunities. Recent research has highlighted the value of bridging social capital in educational attainment, particularly in marginalized communities (Murray et al., 2020; Portes, 2024). Students with broader, cross-cutting networks are more likely to benefit from mentorship, institutional advocacy and academic motivation. Moreover, social capital at the school level through teacher–student relationships, peer networks and leadership has been shown to enhance engagement, resilience and a sense of belonging (Kasperski and Blau, 2023; Scales et al., 2022). By integrating these theoretical perspectives, this study conceptualizes education as a contested space where individual aspirations are mediated by social structures and relational resources. Social mobility theory draws attention to how institutional mechanisms reward or limit educational advancement, while social capital theory emphasizes the relational pathways through which students navigate those systems. Together, they provide a nuanced framework for analyzing how students’ trajectories are shaped by the interaction of structural inequality, cultural resources and network-based support.

Education remains a powerful tool for achieving social and economic mobility, particularly in regions characterized by poverty and inequality (Baulch and Hoddinott, 2000). It not only enhances knowledge and skills but also opens doors to better employment, civic engagement and improved living standards. International and national reports emphasize that inclusive and equitable education is essential for breaking the cycle of poverty and reducing income disparities (Mbodj and Laye, 2025; Shaeffer, 2019). In Pakistan and similar low- and middle-income countries, educational attainment strongly correlates with long-term economic stability and social advancement, particularly when supported by policies that expand access to quality learning environments (Farooqi et al., 2024). However, the impact of education is often uneven, especially among populations in rural areas, low-income communities and minority groups (Wu et al., 2008).

Despite growing policy attention, structural disparities in education continue to limit opportunities for marginalized students. Inequities in school funding, teacher quality and access to basic learning resources persist and often reflect broader patterns of social inequality (Knight, 2019; Wang et al., 2024). In Pakistan, these gaps are especially visible in under-resourced schools that lack essential infrastructure like science labs, libraries and internet connectivity (Bashir et al., 2023). Students from disadvantaged households often face overlapping challenges such as financial hardship, low parental education and restrictive cultural norms factors that particularly affect girls’ education (Thamminaina et al., 2020). These issues, if unaddressed, not only hinder academic performance but also perpetuate cycles of exclusion and underachievement. Scholars emphasize the need to understand both the institutional barriers and sociocultural dynamics driving educational disparities to design targeted interventions (Yang et al., 2025).

Nonetheless, education remains a central aspiration for many students and families who see it as a path to upward mobility, respect and economic empowerment. Research shows that marginalized youth maintain strong academic and career goals, motivated by personal ambition, family support and community narratives of success (Generett and Olson, 2020). However, aspirations alone are insufficient in the absence of institutional support systems. Improvements are emerging through government investments in teacher training, digital technology and school infrastructure (Ahmed et al., 2025; Naqvi et al., 2025). Pedagogical innovations such as inquiry-based learning, technology integration and stronger parental involvement are also enhancing student engagement and academic resilience (Attard et al., 2021; Deák et al., 2021). In addition, effective school leadership and emotionally supportive environments are increasingly recognized as key factors in promoting positive student outcomes and reducing dropout rates (Day et al., 2016; Evans-Brown, 2015).

The present study adopts a qualitative research design (Muzari et al., 2022) which is particularly appropriate for exploring the perceptions, experiences and challenges faced by participants from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan, particularly in terms of how they view the role of education in fostering social and economic mobility. Qualitative research is well-suited to this context because it allows for an in-depth investigation into the subjective experiences of participants, enabling a deeper understanding of the complexities, nuances and dynamics that shape their realities (Creswell and Poth, 2016). The approach emphasizes participants’ perspectives, highlighting their lived experiences in a way that quantitative methods may overlook.

A phenomenological approach was used to capture and analyze participants’ lived experiences with education, specifically how they make sense of their academic journeys and the factors that influence their success or failure in the context of social and economic mobility. It is particularly relevant for understanding how individuals perceive and interpret the meanings of their educational experiences, helping to explore the lived realities of students from disadvantaged backgrounds (Alase, 2017). Phenomenology focuses on identifying and describing the essence of a phenomenon by gathering rich, descriptive data about participants’ perceptions and emotional responses to their experiences.

The study comprised a total of 24 participants, including 12 secondary school teachers and 12 students drawn from both public and private institutions. Participants were selected through purposive sampling to ensure a diverse and information-rich sample. The selection criteria considered geographical location (urban and rural settings), school type (public and private) and socioeconomic background, with particular attention to individuals from low-income households. It enabled the researcher to gain deeper insights into the lived educational experiences of both teachers and students, particularly in contexts marked by economic hardship and institutional disparities. Table 1 shows the student participants’ demographic profile: 58.3% are aged 19–22, 50% are male and 50% are female. Most students (66.7%) attend public schools, with 75% from rural areas and 83.3% from low-income households. The remaining students are from private schools, urban areas and middle-income backgrounds. This demographic emphasizes the focus on low-income, rural and public school students.

Table 2 presents the demographic profile of teacher participants. Most teachers (66.7%) are aged 31–35, with 66.7% male and 33.3% female. The majority (83.3%) teach in public schools, and 83.3% of their students come from low-income households. In terms of professional experience, 66.7% have 6–10 years of teaching experience. This demographic highlights a predominantly male group of experienced teachers, mostly working in public schools with students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

The participants in this study comprised secondary school students and teachers, who were engaged at their respective institutions during prearranged sessions conducted in two distinct phases. In the first phase, the researcher conducted interviews with the teachers, followed by a second phase involving student participants. Data collection was carried out using semi-structured interviews (Zafeer et al., 2023), a method that offers both structure and flexibility, enabling the researcher to gain a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ experiences and viewpoints (Adeoye‐Olatunde and Olenik, 2021). The interviews were conducted in Urdu, the common language spoken by both the interviewer and the interviewees, ensuring effective communication and comfort during the process. Each interview lasted between 40 and 50 min, providing ample time for participants to share their thoughts and experiences in detail. The interviews were recorded using a voice recorder to capture the discussions accurately for further analysis. The interviews were designed to elicit comprehensive information about the participants’ views on the role of education in enhancing social mobility, the barriers they faced in achieving academic success and their aspirations for the future. This method was chosen because semi-structured interviews offered the opportunity to explore key themes while also allowing participants the freedom to express their thoughts and experiences in their own words (Horton et al., 2004). The interview questions were open-ended, aimed at encouraging rich, detailed responses (Rapley, 2001), which facilitated a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences and the challenges they encountered in the education system. Furthermore, the semi-structured format helped maintain a conversational approach, which ensured that the core research questions were consistently addressed (Adams, 2015) while also providing space for additional insights. This approach was aligned with the study’s focus on capturing the lived experiences of students and teachers from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Sinthampi-Banda, 2020).

The thematic analysis of the qualitative data was conducted in accordance with Braun and Clarke (2006) six-phase framework, allowing for a rigorous and systematic interpretation of participants’ experiences and perspectives.

The analysis began with the verbatim transcription of all semi-structured interviews. The researcher engaged in repeated reading of the transcripts to gain an in-depth understanding of the content. Initial notes were recorded to capture early impressions concerning students’ and teachers’ views on the role of education in social mobility, the barriers they encounter and the solutions they envision. This immersion stage enabled the identification of preliminary ideas related to social empowerment, systemic obstacles and aspirational trajectories.

In this phase, manual coding was used to systematically examine the data set. Recurring ideas and notable patterns were highlighted, resulting in the generation of initial codes such as “education as escape from poverty,” “unaffordable school supplies,” “teachers not trained,” “hope through schooling” and “family responsibilities affecting studies.” These codes were grouped based on their thematic relevance to four primary dimensions: socioeconomic, emotional, institutional and pedagogical.

The third phase involved the organization of the codes into broader categories to identify potential themes. Both NVivo software and manual thematic techniques were applied to ensure analytical rigor. For instance, codes pertaining to economic hardship, lack of resources, insufficient teacher training, cultural norms and infrastructural limitations were consolidated under the theme barriers to academic success. Conversely, codes reflecting mentorship, emotional support and effective pedagogical strategies were categorized under Opportunities for Academic Improvement. These thematic groupings were critically evaluated in relation to the research questions.

The preliminary themes were thoroughly reviewed to assess their coherence and alignment with the coded extracts and the entire data set. During this iterative process, some themes were refined, and subthemes were developed to capture specific facets of participant experiences. For example, within barriers to academic success, the subtheme cultural and social norms emerged as distinct from socioeconomic and family factors. This step ensured internal homogeneity within themes and clear boundaries between them.

Each theme and subtheme was clearly defined and labeled to encapsulate its core essence. Detailed definitions were crafted to ensure conceptual clarity and to reflect the full scope of the participants’ narratives. For instance, the theme education as a pathway to social and economic empowerment was defined as the perception that education facilitates upward social mobility and community advancement. Similarly, socioeconomic impact on student engagement and motivation was described as the influence of financial hardship, family-related stress and peer pressure on learners’ academic commitment and participation.

In the final phase, the findings were synthesized into a detailed narrative format. Representative quotes were selected to support each theme and subtheme, offering vivid illustrations of participants’ experiences. The thematic interpretations were connected to the research questions and situated within the broader body of relevant literature. This process yielded a nuanced, evidence-based account of how disadvantaged students perceive their educational journeys, the structural and cultural challenges they confront and their aspirations for a more equitable and empowering educational future. The various thematic analysis steps from start to end highlighted in Figure 1.

Ethical considerations were key to the study. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring they understood the study’s purpose, their involvement and their right to confidentiality (Arifin, 2018). Participation was voluntary, with the option to withdraw at any time without consequences. Ethical approval was also obtained from the institutional review board to ensure compliance with ethical standards.

The results and discussion section is divided into two parts for clarity. RQ1 focuses on education’s role in social and economic empowerment, examining how awareness of educational inequalities shapes perspectives and how education is seen as a pathway to upward mobility. While, RQ2 addresses barriers and opportunities affecting academic success. The first theme highlights barriers such as inadequate resources, lack of teacher training, socioeconomic factors and cultural norms. The second theme discusses opportunities for improvement, including government support, community engagement, innovative teaching and strong school leadership. The third theme explores the impact of socioeconomic factors on student engagement, with subthemes like financial constraints, family challenges, social stigma and the importance of teacher–student relationships. These themes provide a comprehensive view of the factors shaping academic experiences and the potential for socioeconomic mobility. Figure 2 illustrates these themes and subthemes.

The subtheme explores how students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan view education as a means of social and economic empowerment. They see education not only as a tool for gaining knowledge but also as a way to improve their circumstances and contribute to their families and communities. Education is seen as the key to escaping poverty and achieving a better future. For instance, one student shared:

It highlights the strong belief that education offers the only real chance for upward mobility (Lee et al., 2024). The perception that education can serve as a vehicle for economic empowerment is consistent with the broader understanding that education equips individuals with the skills necessary to access better job opportunities and improve their standard of living (Sklias and Chatzimichailidou, 2016). Many students also view education as essential for achieving social empowerment. This includes gaining the knowledge to engage in decision-making processes within their communities and challenging social inequalities. As one student put it:

It aligns with findings from other studies that suggest education fosters not only economic but also social empowerment, enabling individuals to become active participants in society (Avelino et al., 2019; Bennett, 2002; Maqbool et al., 2023). Education helps students build confidence and self-esteem, which in turn provides them with the capacity to confront and challenge societal norms that may restrict their mobility (Adams, 1993; Halliday, 1999). For students in Pakistan, who often face limited access to resources and opportunities, education represents hope for change. As another student stated:

It reflects the strong association between educational attainment and economic advancement. Many students aspire to secure higher-paying jobs that would allow them to support their families and improve their social standing. The importance of education in shaping students’ aspirations for a better future is further reflected in national education policies and development goals in Pakistan (Channa et al., 2021). The government has acknowledged education’s role in social and economic empowerment, with initiatives aimed at increasing literacy rates and providing scholarships for disadvantaged students. However, there is still a need for greater investment in quality education and systemic reforms to ensure that all students, especially those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, can fully benefit from the opportunities education offers (Glewwe, 2002; Tikly and Barrett, 2011).

The second subtheme focuses on the awareness among students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan about the educational inequalities that exist within the system and the impact these disparities have on their academic success and future prospects. Students are often acutely aware of the gaps in access to quality education, particularly when comparing their own experiences with those of peers from more privileged backgrounds (Khan et al., 2015; Rind and Malik, 2024). This awareness plays a significant role in shaping their perceptions of education’s potential to promote social and economic mobility, as well as their understanding of the barriers that hinder such mobility. Many students recognize that their educational experiences are shaped by various factors, including the resources available at their schools, the quality of teaching and the support they receive at home. One student shared:

The above statement reflects the students’ awareness of the stark contrasts between public and private schooling in Pakistan (Awan and Zia, 2015; Maqbool et al., 2020; Tayyaba, 2012), where the lack of resources in government schools is a significant challenge (Farooq et al., 2017; Khan, 2020). Such inequalities create substantial barriers to students’ academic success and hinder their opportunities for upward mobility. In addition, students often perceive that the quality of education they receive is inferior compared to that offered to students from more affluent backgrounds. One student expressed:

This sentiment is echoed by many students, who feel that access to additional educational support whether through private tutoring, extracurricular activities or well-resourced schools significantly impacts their academic performance and future success. Studies have shown that such educational inequalities are a significant factor in perpetuating the cycle of poverty and limiting social mobility (Chudgar et al., 2015; Davies, 2004; Griffin and Allen, 2006; Johnstonbaugh, 2018; Sriprakash et al., 2016). The awareness of these inequalities also extends to the broader social context, where students recognize that factors such as gender, location and family background further exacerbate the disparities in educational opportunities. As one female student noted:

It reflects not only awareness of gender-based educational disparities but also the social stigma that many girls face in accessing education, especially in rural areas (Ali et al., 2022; Hussain et al., 2020; Maqbool et al., 2024b; Pasha, 2024). Despite these challenges, students are often hopeful that education can still provide a pathway to success, although they acknowledge that overcoming these inequalities requires systemic change. Another student remarked:

Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan are highly aware of educational inequalities, such as disparities in resources, teaching quality and social factors. This awareness highlights the structural barriers hindering their academic achievement and upward mobility, fueling both frustration and a desire for change. Research shows that such inequalities significantly affect students’ outcomes and future opportunities (Blanden et al., 2023; Hussain, 2024; Jennings et al., 2015; Skopek et al., 2019; Walsemann et al., 2013; Zafeer et al., 2022). Despite recognizing these challenges, many students are motivated to use education as a means to challenge the systems limiting their potential, with optimism that real change will come only through dismantling these barriers (Prieto et al., 2018).

The third subtheme explores the aspirations and hopes of students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan regarding their ability to achieve socioeconomic mobility through education. Despite the significant barriers they face, many students view education as the primary avenue for transforming their future. Their aspirations are often grounded in the belief that through hard work and education, they can overcome the circumstances of poverty and create a better life for themselves and their families. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds were typically highly motivated to succeed academically, viewing education not just as a personal achievement, but as a means to escape poverty. One student shared:

The above statement reflects the deep-rooted belief that education holds the key to better job opportunities and, consequently, socioeconomic improvement (Aleandri and Refrigeri, 2013; Harris et al., 2006). For many students, pursuing a professional career in fields like medicine, engineering or teaching represents not only a personal goal but also an aspiration to uplift their families and communities. While these aspirations are strong, they are often tempered by the harsh realities of the educational system. Many students are acutely aware of the significant challenges they face in realizing their goals. As one student put it:

Despite such obstacles, the hope for upward mobility remains central to many students’ motivation, and they continue to strive toward their goals, believing that education remains the most viable route to success. Moreover, students’ hope for upward mobility is often reinforced by the success stories of individuals who have overcome similar hardships. As another student noted:

These success stories serve as sources of inspiration and reinforce the idea that education can be a powerful tool for breaking the cycle of poverty. Research indicates that when students see examples of success within their communities, it can boost their motivation and increase their belief in the transformative power of education (Bennetts, 2003; García-Carrión and Díez-Palomar, 2015; Kreisberg, 1991; Kundu, 2020). Students also see education as a means of challenging not only their individual circumstances but also the broader societal structures that perpetuate inequality. For instance, one student commented:

The statement highlights the broader social and psychological dimensions of educational aspirations. For these students, education is not merely an economic tool, but also a means of asserting their equality and challenging societal stigmas tied to their socioeconomic status. Such sentiments align with research on the role of education in promoting social inclusion and self-efficacy among marginalized groups (Birger Sagiv et al., 2022; Kyambade et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2019). While their aspirations are strong, students also acknowledge the systemic challenges that threaten to derail their goals. As one student reflected:

However, students in Pakistan, especially from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, have strong aspirations for upward mobility through education, despite recognizing disparities in the system. While aware of challenges like limited resources and unequal opportunities, they remain hopeful, believing education can help overcome poverty. Their hope is driven by personal motivation, community success stories and a belief in education’s transformative power. This aligns with research on educational inequality, highlighting the gap between aspirations and available opportunities (Genicot and Ray, 2017; Kim and Taylor, 2008; Wiggan, 2007).

The first theme explores the barriers teachers in Pakistan perceive as hindrances to the academic success of students, particularly those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. These barriers include limited resources, inadequate teaching strategies and socioeconomic factors that affect students’ learning outcomes, especially in public schools. Teachers, being at the forefront, provide valuable insights into the obstacles preventing students from reaching their full academic potential.

A major barrier to academic success in Pakistan is the lack of basic infrastructure and resources. Teachers, especially in rural and underserved urban schools, face shortages of teaching materials, outdated textbooks and poor facilities, which hinder their ability to deliver quality education and limit students’ academic success. A teacher from a rural school explained;

The scarcity of resources, including books and desks, significantly impacts both teaching and learning. Over 40% of rural schools in Pakistan lack proper infrastructure, contributing to academic challenges (Ashraf and Ismat, 2016; Siddiqui and Gorard, 2017). Teachers also emphasize the need for updated teaching resources like multimedia tools and digital aids, which are often unavailable in low-income schools. As one teacher noted:

The above quote demonstrate that absence of such resources severely limits the teachers’ ability to adapt their teaching methods to modern educational practices, thus preventing students from receiving an education that meets their full potential (Ertmer et al., 2012; Hew and Brush, 2007).

A key barrier identified by teachers is the lack of adequate training and professional development. Many teachers, especially in rural public schools, have limited access to programs that would help them update their skills and teaching methods. One teacher expressed frustration, saying:

The lack of teacher training impacts both teaching quality and student engagement. Research shows that when teachers lack pedagogical skills, students are less likely to succeed academically (Buddin and Zamarro, 2009; Goe, 2007; Hollins, 2011; Maqbool et al., 2024c; Zafeer et al., 2024). Teachers also noted that many students struggle with subjects like mathematics and science due to insufficient preparation and support. As one teacher noted:

This statement highlights how gaps in prior knowledge and insufficient teaching support at earlier educational stages compound academic challenges, making it difficult for teachers to help students succeed.

Teachers identified socioeconomic and familial challenges as major barriers to academic success. Many students, from families facing poverty, struggle to attend school regularly due to the need to work or the inability to afford fees and materials. A teacher working in an urban slum area shared;

Socioeconomic pressures often lead to absenteeism and decreased school participation (Gottfried, 2009; Muyabi, 2017). These challenges are worsened by the lack of social safety nets. In addition, students face emotional and psychological stress from family issues like domestic violence, substance abuse or absent parents, which affect their academic performance. One teacher noted:

The lack of emotional support creates an additional barrier to academic success and well-being, which can affect students’ ability to concentrate and learn effectively (Becker and Luthar, 2002; Greenberg et al., 2003).

Teachers also highlighted the influence of cultural and social norms on students’ academic success, particularly in the context of gender. In many parts of Pakistan, especially in rural areas, girls often face significant barriers to education due to cultural attitudes and expectations. Teachers noted that girls from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to drop out of school early, get married or become involved in household work instead of continuing their education. One teacher explained:

Gender disparity is a major barrier to the education of girls from disadvantaged backgrounds, with early marriage and societal pressures hindering their education (Aslam, 2007, 2009; Azid and Ejaz Ali Khan, 2010; Latif, 2009; Toor and Parveen, 2004). Teachers in Pakistan identify several challenges for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, including inadequate resources, insufficient training, family-related socioeconomic issues and cultural norms, especially regarding gender. Despite these obstacles, teachers remain dedicated to their students’ success.

This theme highlights opportunities for improving academic success for students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, as seen by teachers in Pakistan. Despite challenges, teachers see potential for growth through systemic changes, innovative teaching, community involvement and better resource access.

Teachers highlight increased government investment as a key opportunity for academic improvement. Better funding for schools, especially in low-income areas, would provide more resources, updated textbooks and technology, along with improved infrastructure to enhance the learning environment and academic outcomes. A teacher from a government school in Punjab shared:

The teacher emphasizes the need for more resources, which could not only improve the quality of education but also create an environment where students feel motivated and supported in their academic journey. Teachers also noted that investments in educational reforms could foster more professional development for educators. A teacher from an underfunded urban school said:

Recent studies support this notion, with evidence showing that professional development for teachers is one of the most effective ways to improve student outcomes (Kennedy, 2016; Powell and Bodur, 2017; Wallace, 2009).

Teachers emphasize the importance of community and parental engagement in education. Strong partnerships through regular meetings, workshops and awareness programs can create a supportive environment for academic achievement. A teacher from a rural area explained:

The above perception aligns with research suggesting that parental involvement is linked to improved academic performance, particularly in low-income settings (Desimone, 1999). Teachers believe that educating parents on how they can support their children’s learning at home is an essential step toward improving academic success (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2002). In addition, teachers emphasized that community leaders could play an important role in supporting education. Another teacher from a rural village noted:

In many parts of Pakistan, the support of community leaders has been shown to have a powerful influence on both educational participation and academic achievement (Salfi, 2011).

Teachers see integrating innovative teaching methods and technology as key to improving academic success. They believe interactive, student-centered approaches and the use of basic technology, like educational videos and online resources, can enhance engagement and help bridge learning gaps in under-resourced areas. A teacher from an urban public school stated,

Digital literacy is becoming increasingly important in education. Despite limited technology access in rural Pakistani schools, efforts to integrate digital tools are helping improve learning in underprivileged areas (Jamil, 2021). Studies show that even small technological interventions can significantly enhance learning outcomes (Behera, 2023). Teachers also emphasized the value of personalized learning approaches. One teacher said:

It aligns with research advocating for adaptive learning systems, which cater to the individual needs of students and foster a deeper understanding of subjects (Chergui et al., 2024).

Teachers believe that effective school leadership is crucial for improving academic outcomes. Proactive, supportive leaders who prioritize student welfare, teacher development and community involvement create a positive school culture that inspires both teachers and students. A teacher from a secondary school in Lahore noted:

Studies have shown that strong school leadership is directly linked to improved student achievement, particularly in challenging environments (Day et al., 2016; Rehman et al., 2025). Teachers also see mentorship and counseling as vital opportunities for supporting students’ academic and emotional development. As one teacher explained:

The importance of holistic support services, including emotional and academic counseling, has been widely recognized in education research, with evidence suggesting that such programs improve student resilience and academic outcomes (Corcoran et al., 2018). However, teachers in Pakistan perceive several opportunities that could improve academic outcomes for students, particularly those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

Teachers perceive that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face significant challenges that impact their engagement, attitude and motivation in education. These challenges, such as financial constraints, limited resources and family issues, often lead to disengagement. This theme explores how socioeconomic factors influence student motivation and how teachers adjust their strategies and interactions to address these challenges.

One of the primary factors that teachers in Pakistan associate with decreased student engagement and motivation is the financial constraints faced by students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Teachers report that many students in these settings lack basic resources such as textbooks, stationery and access to technology. These deficiencies can severely limit students’ ability to fully participate in learning activities, which, in turn, diminishes their interest and motivation. A teacher from a public school noted:

It supports with studies that show a strong relationship between material deprivation and academic underachievement (Cooper et al., 2003). Teachers acknowledge that these external factors significantly hinder students’ ability to stay engaged and motivated in their studies. A teacher from a rural school shared a similar concern;

Such comments highlight how financial burdens and household responsibilities limit students’ mental and emotional bandwidth for academic engagement (Banerjee, 2016).

Another significant factor identified by teachers is the impact of family-related challenges, such as parental unemployment, financial instability and lack of educational support at home. Many students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often face emotional and psychological stress, which affects their academic motivation. Teachers believe that when students are preoccupied with the struggles of their home lives, it becomes difficult for them to focus on their studies. A teacher emphasized:

It is supported by research which suggests that students who face emotional distress or lack of support at home are more likely to disengage from their studies and show lower academic achievement (Wang and Sheikh‐Khalil, 2014). Moreover, some teachers noted that these emotional challenges can lead to behavioral issues in the classroom. On this note another teacher said:

These behavioral issues often stem from deeper socioeconomic problems, and as such, they exacerbate the disengagement and lack of motivation observed in these students (Finn and Zimmer, 2012).

Teachers also report that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often experience social stigma, which affects their engagement and motivation. Students may feel embarrassed about their financial situation or may be subjected to bullying or exclusion from their peers due to their lack of material resources. This social marginalization can contribute to a negative self-image and a lack of confidence, which in turn reduces motivation to perform well academically. A teacher shared:

The above statement shows that students, who feel out of place among their peers, often become isolated and reluctant to participate in school activities or seek help from teachers. The social stigma they face in school can lead to reduced academic self-concept and motivation (Gillen‐O’Neel et al., 2011; Zafeer et al., 2025). Some teachers also noted the positive role of peer support in overcoming these barriers. One teacher remarked;

Peer support has been shown to enhance motivation, especially for students from marginalized backgrounds, as it fosters a sense of belonging and reduces feelings of isolation (Thiem and Dasgupta, 2022).

Teachers perceive their relationships with students as key to fostering engagement and motivation, particularly in challenging circumstances. Many teachers emphasize the importance of encouragement, empathy and individualized support for students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. A teacher in a private school shared;

Positive teacher–student relationships are well-documented as being integral to promoting student motivation and engagement (Wentzel, 2012, 2015). Teachers often feel that showing empathy and providing moral support is essential to helping students overcome external challenges. A teacher from a public school stated;

The form of emotional support can be a powerful tool in helping students feel motivated despite external difficulties. Teachers believe that when students feel understood and valued, they are more likely to develop intrinsic motivation to succeed academically.

The study sheds light on how education serves as a transformative tool for reducing socioeconomic disparities, particularly through the mechanisms of social mobility and the development of social capital. Participants expressed a clear belief in education as a pathway to economic empowerment, consistent with Bourdieu (2011) theory that access to educational capital can disrupt cycles of poverty. However, while aspirations were high, the data also revealed that systemic inequalities particularly in the form of under-resourced schools and unequal distribution of opportunities constrain upward mobility, echoing critiques of the meritocratic ideal (Lareau and Cox, 2011; Zafar, 2024). Rather than functioning as a great equalizer, education often reproduces class-based advantages, particularly when infrastructural disparities and entrenched inequalities remain unaddressed.

To contextualize these findings within the Pakistani education system, it is important to consider current education policies such as the single national curriculum (SNC), which aims to promote equity across public and private schools. However, while the policy aspires to standardize learning, implementation disparities persist, particularly in teacher training and resource allocation, which affect learning outcomes unevenly (Eden et al., 2024). Furthermore, curriculum design often remains theoretical and misaligned with the lived realities of underprivileged students, limiting its transformative potential. National assessment data continues to highlight wide achievement gaps between urban and rural students, further emphasizing the need to bridge policy intentions with ground realities in student learning (Anjum and Ayaz, 2025; Lateef et al., 2024; Zafeer et al., 2021).

Crucially, cultural and social norms emerged as significant yet under-discussed barriers. For instance, gender-based expectations and familial roles often dictated whether students, especially girls, could access and remain in school, limiting their long-term mobility (Hasan et al., 2025; Maqbool et al., 2024a, 2024b, 2024c). While prior literature has acknowledged these norms as inhibitors (Hasan et al., 2025), this study provides qualitative insight into how these expectations intersect with structural barriers like teacher shortages and outdated pedagogy. Therefore, any attempt to enhance educational investment must not be limited to material infrastructure alone; it should critically consider the sociocultural matrix in which learning is embedded. Investments without attention to these contexts risk perpetuating exclusion and inefficacy (Fox, 2016).

Furthermore, while government initiatives and community engagement were identified as potential enhancers of educational quality, their impact remains inconsistent without systemic reform. Effective school leadership, culturally responsive pedagogy and strategic teacher professional development are not merely supplementary they are foundational to educational transformation (Fullan et al., 2024; Fullan and Hargreaves, 2012) Without addressing deeper systemic inequities and culturally embedded expectations, efforts to improve student engagement and achievement will remain partial at best. Thus, this study reinforces the need for holistic educational reform that goes beyond access and includes quality, relevance and equity in implementation.

The study aimed to explore the perceptions of both students and teachers regarding the role of education in enhancing social and economic mobility, particularly among students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Pakistan. The findings highlighted several critical factors that affect students’ academic success and motivation, including financial constraints, family-related challenges, social stigma and the lack of resources. From the students’ perspective, education was seen as a potential pathway to social and economic empowerment, with many expressing hope that it could break the cycle of poverty and provide opportunities for upward mobility. However, the financial barriers and emotional stress associated with their socioeconomic status were identified as key challenges that hindered their engagement and motivation in school.

Teachers, on the other hand, emphasized the significant role they play in overcoming these barriers through personalized support, encouragement and the creation of a positive classroom environment. However, they also noted the challenges they face in addressing the systemic inequalities in the education system. Overall, the study revealed that while education is perceived as a powerful tool for social mobility, substantial barriers exist within the educational system and in the students’ personal lives, which impede their full engagement and academic success. It is essential to recognize and address these barriers to make education more accessible and effective for students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

• Provision of essential learning resources to improve outcomes: To ensure that all students can achieve their academic potential, it is essential to address the disparity in access to educational materials. Government bodies and NGOs should prioritize the equitable distribution of textbooks, digital devices and learning aids in under-resourced schools. Providing these tools will not only level the playing field but also enhance learning outcomes by enabling active participation in classwork and homework.

• Strengthen teacher training to boost learning achievement: Teachers must be equipped with the pedagogical tools to address diverse learner needs. Targeted professional development programs should emphasize differentiated instruction, culturally responsive teaching and strategies for improving student performance. Teachers trained in identifying and supporting at-risk learners can play a critical role in both enhancing inclusion and driving academic improvement.

• Create supportive learning environments that foster academic growth: Schools should prioritize developing nurturing and inclusive classroom environments. Mentorship programs, positive teacher–student relationships and emotional support systems have been shown to increase student motivation and engagement, both of which are closely linked to improved academic performance. Regular monitoring and feedback mechanisms can also help students stay on track.

• Strengthen school-family partnerships to support academic success: Engaging families especially from disadvantaged backgrounds can positively impact student learning. Schools should organize workshops and parent-teacher meetings focused on home learning strategies, academic expectations and emotional support. Parental involvement has been strongly linked with better attendance, higher academic achievement and reduced dropout rates.

• Expand financial aid and academic enrichment opportunities: Scholarships, stipends and fee waivers should be scaled up to reduce economic stress and improve retention rates among low-income students. In addition, programs such as tutoring, remedial classes and summer schools can directly support students in achieving better academic results by addressing gaps in knowledge and skills.

• Implement equitable policy reforms with a focus on quality and outcomes: Education policy must go beyond access and address quality and performance disparities. Investments should target school leadership, curriculum reform, teacher recruitment and performance tracking systems in low-performing regions to ensure all students receive a high-quality education that supports measurable academic success.

• Encourage peer learning and collaborative academic initiatives: Structured peer learning groups and student-led tutoring can promote mutual academic support and deepen understanding through collaboration. These practices not only help struggling students keep pace but also improve academic outcomes across the board by promoting active engagement, critical thinking and social learning.