Quality online education and the role of course instructors' presence, engagement strategies and feedback: a developing country perspective Free

The rapid emergence of online learning has fundamentally transformed the educational landscape (Cohen, 2021), driven significantly by the demands of the COVID-19 pandemic (Chandani, Wagholikar, Pathak, Ubarhande, & Bhatia, 2024). This large shift to online-based distance education modalities has highlighted the critical importance of effective online course design, with an emphasis on engagement, communication and feedback, the follow-up approaches of online courses. This presents opportunities and challenges (Sahni, Verma, & Kaurav, 2024) to course instructors or teachers, as well as their presence, engagement strategies and feedback mechanisms that directly influence the effectiveness and quality of online learning, especially in higher education.

Instructors' presence in online education can be defined as the degree to which instructors are approachable, supportive and present in the process of learning. It plays a decisive role in establishing connections and feelings of community between students, which are often missing in virtual learning realities. Instructors' presence relies on their ability to compensate for the lack of connections, preventing feelings of isolation and disengagement, which, in turn, promotes students' motivation and participation in the learning process.

Here, the engagement strategies, which encompass a variety of interactive activities, real-time communication and collaborative learning opportunities. These strategies help sustain student interest and involvement (Dwivedi, Dwivedi, Bobek, & Sternad Zabukovšek, 2019), making the learning experience more dynamic and immersive.

Feedback, both formative and summative, is another critical element in online education. The quality, timeliness and specificity of feedback provided by instructors can significantly impact student learning outcomes, guiding students in their academic progress and helping them identify areas for improvement. In an online setting, where face-to-face interactions are limited, feedback becomes even more crucial as a tool for communication and instructional support.

In alignment with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4, which emphasizes the need to enhance the quality of education (Nupen, Jagernath, & Pramjeeth, 2024) and make it accessible to all learners, regardless of geographical or socio-economic barriers, in developing countries, where access to quality education can be challenging (Ferguson & Roofe, 2020), effective online learning practices offer a potential solution to bridge these gaps. By fostering a strong instructor presence, implementing robust engagement strategies and providing timely and meaningful feedback, online education can contribute to achieving SDG 4's objectives.

These aspects have not been extensively discussed in the literature of quality education, despite their growing importance. Many initially thought that online-based learning would wane post-COVID, but the reality is that universities continue to use it when necessary, and online education is poised to be a significant component of the future of learning and quality education (Chandani et al., 2024). Thus, this study precisely focuses on the role of instructor presence, engagement strategies and feedback in the design of online courses within the context of developing countries.

Online education has been established as being able to play a significant role in the improvement of developing countries, as is demonstrated by the rapid development in the e-learning sector in the developing world during the COVID-19 crisis (Rouf, Hossain, Habibullah, & Ahmed, 2024). Digital platforms have helped in the continuation of learning, but the lack of a formal, steady and humanized teaching process has debilitated the quality of education (Shahriar et al., 2021).

Teacher presence in the form of proactive communication, guidance and emotional availability is a predictor of student engagement and academic achievement, but many teachers in developing contexts do not have the digital literacy, workload support and pedagogical resources required to create and maintain it. In addition, student engagement approaches are typically based on models designed in high-income countries and do not take into account the context of students in developing regions, including limited device access, unreliable internet connectivity, economic constraints and culturally specific learning habits (Eva, Akter, Zabeen, & Shahriar, 2024).

The feedback, a crucial component in learning reinforcement and improvement in working that frequently comes to be lacking, postponed or only superficial in a big classroom and absence of an institutional feedback system, can be made feasible by a monologic learning environment.

Adding to these tensions is a profound policy disjuncture, national education policies and institutional protocols typically lack any specific standards, supports or monitoring for the human dimensions of online learning but instead prioritize technological infrastructure or enrollments (Bokayev, Torebekova, Abdykalikova, & Davletbayeva, 2021). There is no guidance for those who are working in isolation as instructors without any guidance or support on what is the best way to approach student-centered online pedagogy. Such a study is timely to understand how instructor presence and engagement strategies, as well as feedback mechanisms, influence learning in such environments. By sharing the stories of teachers and students, it will provide useful suggestions that can help improve training based on real evidence and support national efforts to create fair and high-quality online education in line with SDG4.

Online course quality is best understood as a combination of meaningful learning, student satisfaction and equitable access to opportunities for participation (Mohammad & Kamran, 2023). In settings where students juggle limited bandwidth, shared devices and competing responsibilities, “quality” also means predictability and fitness for local conditions (Squire, 2021). Rather than treating technology as the center of the experience, a stronger lens is how design choices, instructor actions and feedback routines work together to sustain momentum in learning (Alterkait & Alduaij, 2024). This review brings together two well-established frameworks, the community of inquiry (CoI) and social presence theory, to clarify how instructor presence, engagement strategies and feedback shape learner experience in low-resource contexts typical of many developing countries.

The CoI framework defines effective online learning as the convergence of three presences: teaching, social and cognitive (Alshammari & Alrehaili, 2025). Teaching presence refers to the intentional design of the course, including its structure, pacing and alignment; the ongoing facilitation of discourse and direct instruction that clarifies misconceptions and synthesizes key ideas (Shea, Li, & Pickett, 2006).

Social presence measures how real and available participants feel as learning partners, while cognitive presence measures how curiosity turns into ongoing inquiry and resolution (Melka, 2025). In practice, these presences are braided together: clear weekly overviews and pacing guides make it easier for students to participate in discussion spaces, which, when well-facilitated, keep learners engaged long enough to achieve deeper understanding (Mackey & Freyberg, 2010). CoI therefore provides a coherent scaffold for interpreting instructor behaviors not as isolated gestures but as coordinated signals that organize, humanize and intellectually animate the course (Kanuka & Garrison, 2004).

Social presence theory complements CoI by focusing on how communication media shape the experience of being with’ others (Wei, Chen, & Kinshuk, 2012). In high-bandwidth environments, this can involve rich, synchronous video; in constrained contexts, social presence is conveyed through concise announcements, warm and timely replies, short audio notes and consistent tone. The crucial point is not the sophistication of the tool but the felt immediacy and reliability of human contact (Wempe & Collins, 2024). Even simple text, if it is prompt, personal and predictable, can reduce isolation and build trust. For learners studying on phones after work or with intermittent connectivity, short check-ins, emoji reactions and quick acknowledgments become more than niceties; they are the cues that a class is alive and that someone is paying attention (David, Kim, Brickman, Ran, & Curtis, 2014).

The quality piece is crucial in every cycle of education from school to university and further higher studies, as it multiplies benefits across a person's life and across the society (Douwes, Metselaar, Pijnenborg, & Boonstra, 2023). It has been very crucial for the government, educational institutions and teachers to ensure quality education. Quality education is important for each person because it provides them the basic skills they need to read, write and solve problems (Grncharovska & Iljazi, 2025). These skills then provide them the ability to learn new things, adjust to changing and difficult job markets and fully participate in civic life. When lessons are clear, interesting and responsive, students are more likely to stay in school, learn and use what they learn to improve their lives (Cheng, Adekola, Albia, & Cai, 2022). Over time, these skills build on each other, leading to higher earnings, better health choices and stronger families.

Quality education improves human capital, which is the stock of knowledge and skills that drives productivity and innovation. This is true at both the community and national levels. Companies invest more and adopt new technologies more quickly when they can count on workers who can read critically, resolve problems and talk to each other. Quality learning also has powerful spillovers beyond the labor market (Brodny & Tutak, 2024).

For developing countries, online and blended programs serving them quality education and SDG 4 meet in the details of design and delivery. When connectivity is intermittent and devices are shared, the question becomes how to make learning quality-assured under constraint, clear weekly structure, small and downloadable resources, active tasks that can be done offline or asynchronously and predictable instructor presence so students know when they will acquire answers and feedback (Sareen & Mandal, 2024). These choices convert scarce bandwidth and limited time into real learning, which is precisely the spirit of SDG 4's focus on effective, equitable outcomes rather than technology for its own sake.

Teaching presence is a broad construct that covers how a teacher designs the course, facilitates interaction and offers direct instruction means explaining, summarizing, correcting (Shea et al., 2006). Teacher presence is often used as a near-synonym for “teaching presence; though some authors use it more loosely to mean how visible” the teacher seems to students (Kuznetcova, Lin, & Glassman, 2021). Instructor social presence focuses on the human side of communication, the sense that the instructor is a real, approachable person who cares and responds, not just a content source. It includes tone, warmth and immediacy cues in messages, audio or short videos (Wise, Chang, Duffy, & Del Valle, 2004). In this study, instructor presence is defined in a way that is practical for low-resource settings. It means the set of routine signals that show the instructor is organizing the course and paying attention to learners.

Prior studies link strong instructor presence with higher satisfaction and better perceived learning, but much of that evidence assumes frequent live video and quick replies at any hour. In lower-resource settings, the most effective presence is cadenced, short overviews, a mid-week nudge and an end-of-week wrap-up; fast acknowledgment of questions even if the full answer comes later and consistent formats so students know where to look and what to do next (Park & Kim, 2020). Presence is also format-aware, text first, optional short audio and compressed files that open easily on a phone. This study extends the literature by detailing presence as a schedule and a file strategy, not just a general call to “be visible”. It shows that steady, predictable signals can anchor motivation without heavy data use or constant synchronous contact.

Student engagement depends on how activities invite action with content, peers and the instructor. In high-bandwidth settings, this often means live discussions, multimedia projects and rapid back-and-forth (Dwivedi et al., 2021). In constrained environments, engagement is better framed as small, meaningful tasks that fit short time slots and limited data, micro-readings with one insight post, problem-solving steps with instant checks and peer responses that can be written offline and posted later (Yeganeh, Fenty, Chen, Simpson, & Hatami, 2025; Yaseen et al., 2025; Philp & Duchesne, 2016). Tasks should be authentic like, tied to local issues or work practice, clearly scoped and doable on a phone (Hess & Tremblay, 2024; Beatty, 2015).

Feedback converts expectations into improvement. Many studies recommend timely, specific responses and rich media comments. Where data and time are tight, feedback works best as a layered system, quick auto-checks for immediate guidance, brief human notes that name one strength and one next step and weekly class summaries that address common issues (Dwivedi et al., 2021). This layered model preserves personalization without requiring long videos or multiple live sessions.

At present, no study has been found that considers all these themes together within the same framework while focusing on the realities of developing-country online education. Previous research tends to isolate one aspect at a time or assumes high-resource learning environments. The research directly supports SDG 4, which calls for all people to have access to high-quality education and lifelong learning opportunities. Quality education entails not only accessibility but also effective pedagogy, meaningful engagement and constructive feedback that facilitate learning for every student, irrespective of context.

This study focuses on the role of instructor presence, engagement strategies and feedback in the design of online courses, aligning with SDG4 within the context of developing countries. It aims to provide a comprehensive thematic analysis of how these elements interact and contribute to the overall effectiveness of online education. By exploring the experiences and perspectives of students and instructors in developing countries, the research seeks to identify best practices and innovative approaches for improving online course design. The findings are expected to offer valuable insights for educators, policymakers and educational institutions striving to deliver high-quality online education in resource-constrained environments.

This study employs a qualitative research methodology to investigate the role of instructor presence, engagement strategies and feedback in the design of online courses in developing countries. The qualitative approach allows for an in-depth understanding of the experiences and perspectives of both students and instructors, providing rich, detailed data that quantitative methods might overlook.

The inquiry was guided by three questions that organized the entire design and analysis: first, how students perceive and experience instructor presence in fully online courses; second, which engagement and feedback practices they find most supportive and why and third, how these practices intersect with cognitive load and students' efforts at self-regulated learning.

The study involved two main clusters: Cluster A, consisting of 27 students from undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and Cluster B, comprising 12 teachers; from seven different private universities in Dhaka and Chattogram. The participants were selected using purposive sampling to ensure a diverse representation of experiences and insights regarding online education. The students ranged from undergraduates to postgraduates.

Data were collected through in-depth interviews, among them, ten interviews were conducted in-person and 29 interviews were conducted via video conferencing platforms. This method was chosen to facilitate detailed and open-ended discussions, allowing participants to express their thoughts and experiences freely. The interview guide was built from these questions; prompts on instructor availability, communication and feedback timing correspond to the first two questions, while probes about navigation, bandwidth and study habits align with the third. The guide was piloted with students, and minor wording changes increased clarity and cultural fit.

Each interview lasted approximately 45–60 minutes. The interview guide included open-ended questions to encourage participants to elaborate on their experiences and provide comprehensive insights. The data collected from the interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis.

In the pursuit of quality education, the presence and active engagement of course instructors play a pivotal role. Respondents from both clusters agreed that the course instructors or teachers are not merely conveyors of knowledge or just information providers, but also facilitators who (1) shape the learning environment in online or offline settings, (2) foster critical thinking and problem solving, (3) guide the students through the complexities of their academic journeys and (4) motivate the students for achieving academic success and the future. In the case of online learning modalities, their effective presence ensures that learning is interactive, responsive and tailored to meet the diverse needs of students. Moreover, in the context of evolving educational landscapes, particularly with the integration of technology and the need for inclusivity, the instructor's role becomes even more crucial. Effective instructor presence helps students reach their full potential and align with broader educational goals, such as SDG4, which emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality education.

Around 96% of respondents from cluster-A (students) and 100% of respondents from cluster B (teachers) agree that punctuality and full attendance by instructors in class play a key role in the development of an effective teaching atmosphere in online classes. When instructors consistently arrive or join on time and remain fully engaged throughout the class, this reliability not only helps to maintain the flow and structure of the lesson, but also demonstrates respect for students' time and commitment to institutional values.

A present instructor is able to observe the energy, mood and behavior in class and is in a position to immediately adapt to the appropriate methods of teaching and content capable of satisfying the students' needs. Instructors' dedication makes students more motivated and responsive, and it makes the learning process efficient and purposeful.

While sharing their experiences, around 89% of the respondents from Cluster-A mentioned that less than 89% of their faculty members join online classes on time. Additionally, around 96% of the respondents from the same cluster indicated that when teachers do not join online classes on time, it creates a negative impression of the instructors and adversely affects the effectiveness of the study environment.

In the era of online education, virtual office hours have emerged as a pivotal tool in enhancing accessibility within education, particularly in the context of technology-enhanced learning (TEL). By allowing students to engage with instructors beyond traditional classroom settings, virtual office hours break down barriers related to time, location and physical disabilities. A total of 100% of the respondents said that this flexibility ensures that all students, regardless of their personal circumstances or geographic location, can access academic support and guidance. However, when discussing their recent experiences in an online educational setting, approximately 63% of students reported that they encountered challenges obtaining approval from faculty members or instructors due to their delayed responses. Additionally, 33% of respondents reported instances where teachers failed to respond to their emails or provide adequate support.

When asked about the concerns of the students, around 100% of the teachers from cluster B responded that they do their best to maintain the virtual office hours and support the students. However, because most universities lack supportive learning management systems (LMSs), it becomes challenging for them to effectively maintain the office hours online.

Here, it is evident that virtual office hours offer a crucial solution in the online classroom environment, where infrastructure and commuting challenges may impede students' access to faculty. They align with SDG 4 by promoting inclusive and equitable education, enabling a broader demographic to benefit from continuous learning opportunities. Universities can foster a more supportive and accessible learning environment by using digital platforms to cater to the diverse needs of their student populations.

In the context of online course design, especially within developing countries like Bangladesh, where online education is relatively new for most people, the role of instructor communication is paramount in fostering a sense of presence, which is crucial for student engagement and the overall quality of education. Various communication methods, such as live online video calls and discussion boards, each play distinct roles in creating an engaging and interactive learning environment. A live online class with a video call, for instance, enhances the instructor's presence by adding a personal touch, helping students feel more connected to the course and their instructor. Around 100% respondents from cluster-A and 67% respondents from cluster-B mentioned the live video class as the first component of online learning.

Secondly, the interview analysis confirmed that emails serve as a direct and personalized communication channel for the online learning environment, allowing for timely (1) feedback and support; (2) notes; (3) sharing learning materials; (4) submitting projects or assignments; (5) disseminating information is critical for maintaining student motivation and addressing individual needs.

Thirdly, discussion forums in LMS or online class-based social networking site groups, on the other hand, foster a collaborative learning environment where students can engage with both peers and instructors, thereby promoting active learning and deeper understanding.

In some cases, where educational institutions do not have a proper LMS, students and teachers also communicate through personal emails, WhatsApp, Facebook groups and message groups. In developing countries, where technological infrastructure may vary, selecting and optimizing these communication methods becomes even more critical to ensuring that all students can participate fully and benefit from the educational experience. Effective use of these communication strategies, combined with timely and constructive feedback, can significantly enhance student engagement and contribute to ensuring that quality education is accessible to all, regardless of geographical or socioeconomic barriers.

The role of instructor presence in managing student’ cognitive load is critical to ensuring quality education and academic performance (Stachel et al., 2013). Cognitive load refers to the mental effort required to learn new information and can be divided into three types: (1) intrinsic, (2) extraneous and (3) germane load (Faulconer, Bolch, & Wood, 2023). In online learning settings, where students often study independently and face numerous challenges, the effective management of these cognitive loads by the course teacher is essential for fostering a better learning experience; Costley (2020).

The complexity of the content correlates with intrinsic cognitive load, and elemental interactivity plays a crucial role in highlighting the task's level of challenge (Sweller, 2010). In developing countries, where students may have varied educational backgrounds, differing levels of prior knowledge and diverse educational environments, course instructors play a key role in structuring content in a way that is accessible to all learners.

Poorly designed instructional materials or distractions in the learning environment can cause unnecessary cognitive effort, known as extraneous cognitive load (Hong, Liu, Ho, Tsai, & Tai, 2024; Costley, 2020). This research found that in developing countries, students face additional challenges such as unreliable internet connections, limited access to devices or distractions in their home environments. Previous research also supports these findings. Notably, around 100% of the respondents from Cluster B confirmed that instructors try to mitigate extraneous cognitive load by simplifying course navigation, providing clear instructions and minimizing non-essential content.

Germane cognitive load is the mental effort directed towards processing, constructing and automating schemas, which are necessary for learning (Greenberg & Zheng, 2022). Instructors enhance germane workload by engaging students in meaningful learning activities that promote deep understanding and knowledge construction (Lange, 2021).

Here are some active learning strategies that the respondents from cluster B mentioned: (1) problem-solving tasks; (2) local and international case studies; (3) collaborative projects or team papers and (4) active presentations along with peer question and answer sessions.

The research findings revealed several significant challenges that students encounter during their online-based educational journey, which can intensify their cognitive load:

1. Language Barriers: The study found that students from a Bangla-medium educational background often struggle with the transition to university-level courses that predominantly use English-language textbooks and curricula. This challenge is particularly pronounced in the first semester, as these students may find it difficult to fully engage with the course content. To address this, many instructors adapt their teaching approach by delivering lectures in Bangla and providing multilingual resources, which helps accommodate students who are more comfortable learning in their native language.

2. Differing Educational Standards: The research highlighted that students enter university with varying educational backgrounds, which can create challenges in ensuring that all students can effectively follow the course material. Instructors are required to carefully tailor their content delivery to bridge these gaps and make the learning experience more inclusive for all students.

3. Varying Levels of Digital Literacy: The findings also indicated that students possess different levels of digital literacy, which can hinder their ability to navigate online learning platforms and resources. As a result, both instructors and institutions are encouraged to design and implement digital systems that are as user-friendly and straightforward as possible, ensuring that all students, regardless of their digital proficiency, can effectively participate in their courses.

This research finding indicated that the instructor's presence is pivotal in fostering self-regulated learning behaviors among students in online courses, particularly in settings where external support systems are limited. Instructors can promote self-regulation by implementing strategies such as goal-setting, self-assessment via practice and peer projects and reflective practices through online discussions. These approaches empower students to take greater control of their learning process and develop the necessary skills for independent study.

Additionally, the findings emphasize the importance of proper course pacing in managing cognitive load. Instructors must carefully balance the need to cover the syllabus with the students' ability to absorb and process the material. This balance is especially critical in the online learning ecosystem, where students may have inconsistent access to learning resources and may require additional time to engage with the content.

However, 85% of respondents from Cluster A reported that most faculty members and universities do not prioritize students' learning pace or focus on ensuring effective learning. This finding suggests a significant gap in the attention given to how students absorb and process information, which may impact the overall quality of education.

This research findings highlighted the critical role of course instructors' engagement strategies in ensuring the quality of online education. The data indicate that effective engagement by instructors significantly influences (1) student motivation, (2) participation and (3) overall learning outcomes. In online learning environments, where students often experience feelings of isolation and limited interaction, the presence of an engaged instructor and peer groups helps bridge these gaps by encouraging a sense of community and active learning.

The research findings reveal that the use of interactive learning activities, such as quizzes, polls and interactive content, plays a crucial role in maintaining student interest and participation in online courses. A total of 100% of the respondents from cluster-A mentioned that they find these activities highly effective as they break the monotony of traditional lectures and encourage active involvement in the learning process.

According to 75% of the respondents from the cluster- B quizzes and polls, the story-telling approach, experiential learning, class debates and discussions, in particular, provide immediate feedback to both students and instructors, allowing for the identification of areas where students may be struggling. This real-time interaction helps students stay focused and reinforces their understanding of the material. Additionally, interactive content, such as videos, animations and simulations, fosters a more dynamic learning environment by enabling students to apply concepts in a practical context and engage in meaningful discussions with peers.

The research findings highlight the significant impact of collaborative learning strategies on online learning effectiveness. Around 75% of the respondents from Cluster B stated that they actively work on innovative group and individual projects as well as peer-to-peer interactions during live classes, fostering student engagement and improving the overall learning experience in online courses. Interviews revealed that students become more interested in what they are learning when they are offered chances to work in groups and discuss issues with other learners.

Group projects, in particular, foster the development of (1) critical thinking and (2) problem-solving skills by requiring students to collaborate, share diverse perspectives and utilize each other's strengths. This collaborative approach not only deepens their understanding of the course material but also helps them build essential teamwork skills that are valuable in real-world scenarios.

Peer-to-peer interactions based on case studies, situational analysis or topic-based discussions further contribute to a sense of community within the online learning environment, reducing feelings of isolation that students might experience in remote settings. Around 100% of respondents from both clusters agreed that these interactions enable students to support each other, exchange ideas and provide constructive feedback, creating a more dynamic and interactive learning process.

Constructive feedback provided by course instructors is a key driver for improving learning outcomes in online education. In developing countries, where students face various challenges such as limited academic support (Eva et al., 2024) and technological barriers (Sahni et al., 2024; Samarji, Sengupta, Nauman, & Sabbah, 2023), detailed and constructive feedback is critical for guiding them in the right direction. Effective feedback provides students with specific guidance on how to enhance their academic performance, enabling them to understand their strengths and areas for improvement while at the same time ensuring the quality of education.

Timely feedback serves as a critical tool for enhancing student performance in online courses; 100% of the respondents from cluster-A agree that quick responses from instructors help them to correct misunderstandings, reinforce their learning and stay on track with course objectives. Delays in feedback lead students to repeat mistakes or lose motivation, ultimately resulting in lower academic performance. As students become more accustomed to traditional face-to-face interactions, approximately 67% of respondents from cluster-B agree that instructors' timely responses help reinforce their presence in the virtual classroom while also creating a comfortable learning environment for all.

The students have provided the following corrected reasons for the importance of timely feedback: (1) immediate clarification of doubts; (2) effective time management; (3) reduced anxiety; (4) improved connections with the instructor and peers; (5) cognitive reinforcement and memory retention; (6) create scope for class discussion on that particular subject matter.

In developing countries, students often face unique socio-economic, cultural and environmental challenges that can affect their learning experiences. A total of 92% of the respondents from Cluster B assert that instructors can significantly enhance the relevance and applicability of the material they teach by adapting and contextualizing the course content to align with local realities.

Here, when providing feedback on local realities, instructors try to highlight how students can apply their learning in local contexts.

The findings from this research highlight the critical role of instructor presence in online education, particularly in developing countries. Instructor presence is not only about being available during classes but extends to actively shaping the learning environment, fostering critical thinking and guiding students through their academic journeys. This research reveals that effective instructor presence is essential for ensuring that online education aligns with broader educational goals, which emphasize inclusive and equitable quality education.

The availability and presence of the respective course teachers during the class time, along with their off-hours set by the university, were deemed to be factors that facilitate behavioral factors necessary for effective learning. According to the respondents' feedback on the consistency of instructors, it is evident that the students develop trust and respect for the instructors, thereby improving their motivation and attentiveness. However, the study also uncovered significant gaps, particularly in maintaining virtual office hours and responding promptly to student inquiries. These gaps also highlighted a critical area for improvement, as delayed responses can lead to student frustration, decreased motivation and a negative impact on the overall learning experience and educational institutions. Especially when the online LMS is not highly advanced in terms of technological infrastructure, it is imperative to choose the right channels for communication in order to enhance students' activity and minimize their cognitive load. Each of the live video classes, emails and discussion forums contributes differently to providing an interesting online class and an interactive process of learning.

The research underlines the critical role of instructor presence in managing cognitive load within online learning environments. Effective management of intrinsic cognitive load involves breaking complex content into manageable segments, crucial for diverse student backgrounds. To reduce extraneous cognitive load, simplifying course navigation and addressing technological barriers is essential, though persistent issues may limit effectiveness. By providing clear instructions, sharing downloadable contents and minimizing non-essential content instructors manages the cognitive loads. Strategies to enhance germane cognitive load, such as active learning, foster deeper engagement but depend on students' ability to participate. Adapting content to local contexts, addressing language barriers and digital literacy is vital, though partial solutions may persist. Instructor presence also supports self-regulated learning and pacing, yet many institutions overlook these aspects, highlighting a gap in quality education. Overall, addressing these issues is crucial for improving online learning in developing countries.

The extent to which timely, constructive feedback plays a role a role in online courses cannot be overemphasized. This research suggests that this feedback should be timely, explicit and in a form suitable to the needs of each individual learner. One of the most significant findings of this study is the importance of contextualizing course content to align with the local realities of students in developing countries. Instructors who incorporate local case studies and examples into their teaching not only make the content more relatable and practical, but also help students see the direct application of their learning to real-world situations.

Beyond reinforcing existing knowledge, the findings from this research extend ongoing scholarly conversations about quality online education in meaningful ways. The CoI framework emphasize that instructor presence, teaching, social and cognitive forms the backbone of effective online learning environments. The present study supports this claim but deepens it within the context of developing countries by showing how limited infrastructure, inconsistent communication channels and socio-economic constraints intensify the need for strong instructor presence.

The findings underscore the need for a holistic approach to online course design that considers the diverse realities of students and leverages technology to create an inclusive and supportive learning environment. Nonetheless, this research identified several barriers to online education that need improvement to make it offer better chances of learning to the communities of developing nations. Some of the challenges include students' digital divide, a lack of access to proper technological devices and the infusion of techno-styled pedagogy to cater to all students' needs. With the solutions described in responding to the issues raised in this study and the suggestions regarding best practices brought out, educators and institutions can work towards improving the quality of online education and positively impacting the achievement of SDG 4.

These pedagogical practices do more than improve a single course, they advance SDG-4 by widening inclusive access to quality learning (Target 4.3), building digital and academic skills linked to employability (Target 4.4), reducing equity gaps tied to location, gender and socio-economic status through flexible, mobile-first delivery (Target 4.5) and strengthening teachers' capacity for technology-enhanced instruction (Target 4.c). At the same time, persistent obstacles remain: patchy internet and limited devices, scarce institutional support for instructional design and workloads that make sustained instructor presence difficult. Therefore, sustained professional development in online pedagogy, adoption of low-data design as a quality standard and structural supports for meaningful feedback, for example realistic class sizes, teaching assistants or feedback tools, alongside explicit use of SDG-4 indicators in program-level planning and monitoring can ensure quality online educational ecosystem.

For the educational institutions, strengthening course instructor availability does not necessitate comprehensive reforms but rather the development of clear, realistic guidelines on what presence during scheduled class times and virtual office hours should entail. Instead of imposing demanding expectations, policies can set minimum standards while allowing departments the flexibility to adapt them based on workload and program needs. Institutions can also take gradual steps toward integrating instructor presence into performance evaluations by starting with simple indicators, such as communication consistency or timely feedback before expanding to more complex measures. Moreover, using basic LMS analytics to track answer patterns or identify recurrent student concerns can offer a practical, low-cost way to improve the educational support without overburdening single course instructor or requiring major technological investments.

Educational institutions can strengthen the online learning ecosystem by offering regular, targeted professional development for educators in digital pedagogy. Training should address managing intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load; designing active and adaptive learning activities and tailoring instruction to local contexts and bandwidth constraints. To keep expectations realistic, offer these opportunities as short modules, peer-mentoring circles or micro-credential pathways that faculty can complete over a term. In addition to traditional supports such as sabbaticals or travel funds where feasible, institutions can recognize and incentivize faculty who earn digital-pedagogy certifications or pilot innovations in online instruction through public recognition, small grants or limited course release. Clear criteria in promotion and annual reviews that value effective online teaching will reinforce these incentives without overburdening staff or budgets.

Using local scenarios, examples and culturally responsive content can meaningfully raise student engagement and perceived relevance. To make this practical, colleges can convene a small, cross-departmental review group to curate and share inclusive materials and to create simple checklists for language, imagery, accessibility and alignment with local norms. Partnering with community organizations, industry and local experts can yield co-designed case studies, guest sessions and field-based projects that connect theory to practice.

To address the varied needs and levels of technology access of students, colleges and universities may want to make use of a balanced approach to the use of synchronous, for example live video sessions and asynchronous, for example email, discussion boards, downloadable content means of communication. Colleges and universities might also consider policies that require teachers to reply to learners' questions within acceptable time frames, for example 24 hours. Opting for light and low-bandwidth platforms could also bring accessibility to wider reach, especially in low-connectivity areas.

Universities may wish to consider incorporating a standardized system to facilitate timely, individualized and positive feedback to students. The implementation of alternative feedback mediums, that is audio or video, could improve instructor–learner relationships. Collecting student feedback during the term might also be a useful mechanism for faculty members to respond in a timely manner and enhance the quality of their teaching.

The use of modular design in the course structure might assist in facilitating better cognitive processing in the students. Institutions could consider simplified designs that are less visually or navigationally complex, for example clear layout and focus on the most important content. To serve learners with limited or unreliable internet, provide downloadable and print-ready resources such as lightweight PDFs, text transcripts and offline activity sheets, along with concise instructions and due-date summaries. These choices reduce extraneous cognitive load, minimize screen fatigue and improve equity of access without requiring major technology upgrades.

Governments are encouraged to consider the concept of a national model specifying what may and may not be reasonably expected as ethical practice in the engagement of instructors in virtual education. This framework could be used as a guide to outline professional standards and obligations in online teaching. Accreditation processes for the credentials online teachers obtain could help standardize quality and incentivize their professional development.

A national push to get better at teaching online could have an impact, especially if it can reach both public and private university teachers. Fellowship programs or innovation labs could also be put into place to encourage experiments and to recognize excellence in online education. Such efforts might create a network of educators effectively teaching across a range of digital platforms.

Possibly national programs could be instituted to improve digital access for underprivileged students and their teachers. Affordable devices, perhaps through public-private partnerships, might provide such a pathway. Community-based digital learning spaces with access to reliable internet and shared devices could be an effective way forward for students in remote or underserved locations. Making digital literacy an integral part of educational institutions may even help ensure young people and their teachers are better placed to navigate the changing digital world; whatever it throws at them.

The establishment of an autonomous monitoring mechanism may be explored to monitor and evaluate the developing norms of online delivery of education. This body might have a developmental role-supporting institutions with handholding and transparency rather than a focus on regulation. Stakeholders believe that by publishing annual learning outcome reviews and institutional performance reflections with indicators relevant to SDG 4, this could help create a culture of accountability and shared learning across the education system.

This research suggests that effective instructor presence fosters a dynamic and interactive learning environment, bridging the gaps often found in remote education. The study points to a simple message: in low-resource contexts, the quality of online learning hinges less on advanced platforms and more on predictable, human-centered teaching routines. When teachers are visible and accessible, and have more than one channel for communicating, it makes students confident in their learning and they stay on task. By breaking down complex content matter and so reducing cognitive load, offering clear road maps to guide learning and helping when things go wrong with simple technology barriers, we can reduce frustration. Interactive and collaborative learning activities play a crucial role in maintaining student engagement, motivation and active participation. Timely, constructive, criteria-linked feedback then closes the loop by showing students how to improve in the next attempt. As online education continues to gain popularity, the findings emphasize the need for institutions, educators and governments to priorities the development of robust strategies that address the unique challenges of online learning environments. Ensuring the quality of education in these settings is vital for achieving inclusive and equitable education, aligning with SDG 4 and empowering students to reach their full potential.