Attitudes of Graduate Students toward Mixed-Medium Distance Education

Although the feasibility of distance education and its effectiveness are now basic assumptions in the field, reference to some studies in this area may be applicable, as there may still be those who are unaware of the multitude of studies on the effectiveness of distance education. In studying the effectiveness of mediated instruction, Clark stated, “the best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievements any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in nutrition” (Clark, 1983, p. 448). Clark's study referred to hundreds of media comparison studies, the results of which concluded that there is no inherent significant difference in the educational effectiveness of media. Martin and Rainey (1993) further supported this thesis when they found that not only was there not a significant difference in attitude between traditional and distance high school students; but, the post-test indicated a significantly higher achievement level by the distance education students than the traditionally-taught students. In 1989, Beare compared the effectiveness of delivery formats: videotape, audiotape, and telelecture. The results of the study indicated that the delivery format “had little effect on student achievement” and that “the lack of individual opportunity to interact on a daily basis with the instructor did not reduce student learning as measured by the course examinations” (Beare, 1989, p. 64). Even if the results had indicated some validity to the citing of reduced interaction upon achievement, that would now be overcome by the technology developments of teleconferencing and advancements in the use of the Internet.

A research study of particular interest to higher education is the Souder study in 1993 comparing the effectiveness of traditional versus satellite-delivered instruction in three master's degree programs. The sample included the students at Georgia Tech, the University of Alabama (Huntsville), and the National Technological University (NTU). The same instruction was provided to all participants except that the NTU group received their instruction via satellite. The null hypothesis that there would be no difference in the achievement of the three groups was rejected. Although all three groups' mean scores were over 90 on a 100-point scale, the NTU students scored significantly higher on the exam than either the Georgia Tech or University of Alabama students. Souder further indicated that the distance learners “gained a broadened network of valuable colleagues, skills in working with others and collaborating across distances, and many social skills beyond those offered by traditional classroom settings.”

In 1999, Russell published a final comparative research annotated bibliography of studies on technology for distance education. Russell cited 355 research reports, summaries, and papers that document the no significant difference phenomenon. That is to say that these studies from 1928 through 1998 provide substantial evidence that instruction is neither improved nor denigrated by delivery methods. In a foreword to The No Significant Difference Phenomenon, Clark stated that Russell “provides an abundance of evidence for an elegant, simple and empirically accurate point that has been advanced by a number of researchers in the past seventy years.” So much has the issue of an impact on learning by delivery become a non-issue that Russell, who has been compiling the database for over ten years, determined that 1999 would be the final year that he would publish the no significant difference study descriptions [a Web site, http://tenb.mta.ca/phenom/, has been established at the University of New Brunswick to provide current updates for researchers to submit “no significant difference” and “significant difference” entries for permanent posting]. In this final publication, Russell drew from his first (1992) published version of the compilation in again stating that “no matter how it is produced, how it is delivered, whether or not it is interactive, low-tech, or high-tech students learn equally well with each technology and learn as well as their on-campus, face-to-face counterparts” (p. xiv).

These studies are cited as examples of the multitude that have validated the effectiveness of distance education as compared to the education provided in the traditional classroom. With the issue of effectiveness now set aside, the acceptance of distance education as a fait accompli is illustrated by the number of programs devoted to this topic in the world of higher education. For example, the Fischler Center for the Advancement of Education at Nova Southeastern University offers an M.S. and Ed.D. in Instructional Technology and Distance Education. The trends examined in one course of their program include: online learning, intelligent systems, groupware, instructional simulations, and organizational learning (http://www.nova.edu). The University of Idaho offers a “Distance Education at a Glance Series” to assist faculty, administrators, facilitators, and students in understanding distance education. Topics in their series include: strategies for teaching at a distance; instructional development for distance education; evaluation for distance educators; instructional television; instructional audio; computers and print in distance education; strategies for learning at a distance; research in distance education; interactive videoconferencing; the World Wide Web use; and, copyright issues related to distance education (http://www.uidaho.edu).

A study that examined the effectiveness of a distance system as it related to graduate student achievement was completed at Iowa State University (Payton, 1999). The study compared student achievement between studio students and remote students enrolled in a graduate school law course taught over the Iowa Communications Network (a two-way full motion fiber optics telecommunications system). An achievement comparison was made using scores on a pretest/posttest, class participation grade, unit quizzes grade, final exam grade, and course grade. The students' scores and grades were analyzed using a t-test and a Mann-Whitney U test. No significant difference was found in achievement between the two environments. This study supports the “no significance difference” theory as it applies to achievement by graduate students. However, the study did not look at the constructs of student satisfaction.

It cannot be disputed that distance education reduces or eliminates the face-to-face contact between the learner and the faculty and between the learner and other learners. In the Sorensen study (1997), the learners who were over age 25 had significantly higher scores on the membership construct than did those age 25 or under. The explanation may be that those over age 25 have a reduced need for the support provided by face-to-face interaction and are more independent. Perhaps their support structures lie outside the academic arena since they are more likely to be employed and have families.

Rossman (1992) suggested that a worldwide electronic university is emerging propelled not only by the new opportunities provided by communications technology, but also by the desperate needs of underdeveloped areas for better research, political action, and education. He describes the role of higher education as providing the means for the achievement of:

• adequate food for the world's people,

• adequate health care, housing, and economic opportunity for all,

• restoration of the ecology of the planet, reduced pollution of air, soil, and water,

• justice for all through global governance adequate to solve conflicts without war,

• accomplishment of the goals stated in the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights,

• economic opportunity for all, and

• education for all.

Rossman stresses the role of higher education as the foundation for the information-and-knowledge-based global society of the twenty-first century. As the first universities in Western Europe were international with students moving from country to country in search of the education that was the enabling force of the Renaissance, Rossman views the “electronic highways” as today's international universities. His hope is that they will be the means for the achievement of the desired goals for higher education. Economic forces are causing a “dangerous information gap” to occur in developing countries. Rossman appears to define the moral responsibility of nations of the world with developed systems of higher education to provide the solution for the have-nots via electronic connections to the major university systems of the world. “Many higher education institutions are experimenting with the exchange of courses and lectures from country to country, and some are asking how else universities in poorer countries can keep pace with scientific research that is crucial to their future” (Rossman, 1992, p. 1). Rossman describes the efforts of the September 1988 conference at Talloires in France of 45 university presidents from around the world who drafted a declaration directed at the 60 million students and two million researchers in higher education.

Although far less plentiful than general studies on students' attitudes toward and perceptions of distance education, studies have been published on graduate students involved in distance learning. Studies in the early 1990s tended to focus on interactive video and audio and less on computer-mediated courses.

Two groups of distance graduate students at San Diego State University were studied during the period of May 2000 and July 2000 (McFarlane, 2002). The study utilized the Dimensions of Distance Education instrument developed by Harrison and Saba (1992). The instrument was modified to update language and adapt to new technologies. Group one was a cohort of 36 individuals whose primary method of communication and instruction was the Internet. Group two was a cohort of 26 individuals who attended face-to-face instruction from the professor who traveled to them for concentrated periods of one to three weeks. The categories measured included instruction (student/professor interaction, student/peer interaction, and logistics), management (DE support staff responsiveness, technology, planning and course offering, and communication), distance education (cost, unique features of DE, and content), and support (support from upper management and support of program). On a five-point Likert scale with 5 being the most positive perception of their distance education experience and with each item's importance rated as high, medium, or low, the mean scores are shown below.

McFarlane's group reported three overriding findings:

1. DE support staff members are critical. There is a desire and need for connectedness to the institution and faculty. Faculty interaction and staff support are significant.

2. Accessibility to education was essential.

3. Instruction, methods of delivery, technology use, and quality of instruction were important to both groups. Group One, where face-to-face interactions were minimized, showed an increased need for communication and interaction with the support personnel.

Studies focusing on graduate students' needs, attitudes, perceptions, and satisfaction with distance education programs appear to be rather limited. When the search is restricted to the technology of today, the number becomes even smaller. In 1995, a study was published that examined graduate students' perceptions of a two-way audio-video distance learning delivery system prior to and after experiencing one distance learning session (Bangpipob, 1995). There was found to be no significant difference in their pre-experience perceptions and post-experience perceptions.

At the University of Nebraska, a combined qualitative and quantitative study analyzed both achievement and perception of graduate students in a distance-learning program (Gosmire, 1996). Quantitative analysis consisted of a statistical analysis of survey results and ex post facto data. The qualitative analysis was conducted throughout the data collection process. The conclusions of the study were that cohort groups are a major influence; program development, support, and improvement must be well structured and ongoing; interactivity is a significant dimension of distance learning; support services are critical; and that the achievement of students in distance programs will be equal to or above the levels demonstrated by on-campus students.

In 1997, Hilgenberg reported that few studies had examined student satisfaction with two-way audio, two-way video distance delivery systems. No studies were identified that focused on student satisfaction and opportunities for interaction associated with critical thinking. Hilgenberg's study of graduate students at two large Midwestern universities reported positive perceptions of satisfaction and opportunities for critical thinking. Utilizing Biner's (1996) Telecourse Evaluation Questionnaire and a questionnaire developed to focus on critical thinking, there was shown to be no significant difference in measures of either satisfaction or critical thinking between students at the main sites and those at the remote sites.

A qualitative grounded theory study reported that distance education graduate students progressed through stages evolving from novice users of computer-mediated communication (CMC) to experienced CMC learners (Scott-Fredericks, 1997). Additionally, it was reported that the evolution process was facilitated or constrained by the role that the faculty played in the process.

In 1997, Christine Sorensen published the results of a study of the attitudes of community college students toward interactive television. The state of Iowa completed construction of a statewide, two-way full-motion interactive fiber optic telecommunications network in 1993 linking community colleges, universities, and K-12 schools. The Iowa Distance Education Alliance (IDEA) received an $8 million grant from the federal Star Schools Program to demonstrate the use of the system for K-12 instruction. One function of the IDEA project was the development of an instrument to assess student attitudes about their experiences in the program. The factors studied included instruction, membership, technical aspects, course management, course satisfaction, and some single items. The sample population studied included the students enrolled in courses taught over the Iowa Communications Network (ICN) at eight community colleges in the summer session of 1994.

In 1994, when the IDEA project developed the instrument, the technology studied was interactive telecommunications. In 2002 at Texas Tech University in the Colleges of Education and Engineering, the graduate classes incorporate several technologies including use of two-way interactive synchronous video conferencing, one-way asynchronous video instruction and support, and use of the Internet for synchronous and asynchronous instruction and support. Sorensen reported in her findings and those of the literature that distance education is more suited to older students. This may be attributable to a lower need for interaction with their peers. As graduate students tend to be older students (97% of the students in our pilot study were over 25 years of age), this research attempted to determine if that would be validated by this study. Sorensen's recommendation for further study was evaluation of the satisfaction of audiences other than community college students to assess whether the system is more suitable for different levels of instruction. She indicated that use of the IDEA project instrument in studies of other audiences would allow a determination of the stability of the constructs across populations allowing some revisions in the course management items.

As a research-intensive institution, TTU strives to improve the success of graduate students by identifying and alleviating or rectifying conditions that negatively impact success (Schmidly, 2001). Therefore, graduate student satisfaction is of vital interest to Texas Tech University and to every other higher education institution that offers or is considering offering a program targeted to graduate students. Lambert (1986) referred to “happy graduates” as a measure of quality distance learning. Tovar (1989) described satisfaction of students as an important issue to be addressed in evaluating distance education. The purpose of this pilot study is to evaluate the distance learning programs in the College of Engineering and College of Education at Texas Tech University through assessment of graduate student attitudes toward and satisfaction with their programs.

The instrument used for data collection was adapted from Sorensen's (1996) distance education attitude survey. Items were changed to reflect the variety of technology used to deliver courses at a distance in this study. The survey consisted of 32 items: 5 demographic items and 27 4-point scale Likert items from strongly disagree to strongly agree (See Appendix A).

A confirmatory factor analysis using principal component analysis with promax rotation was conducted to support the use of construct sub-scales. Items were loaded on each component based on highest correlation. Four components explained 54% of the variance. Two items loaded on a fifth component, but reliability did not support the use of this component as a sub-scale. Table 1 shows the factor loadings.

“Technical problems interfere with my learning in the distance course,” and “The fact that my class participation is in the form of posting to discussion posts inhibits my class participation” were the items loaded on a fifth component.

Additional analysis was conducted to determine the reliability of the constructs. Cronbach alpha coefficients were computed for each of the four construct sub-scales and for overall instrument reliability (Table 2). Alpha levels ranged from .70 to .84.

Students enrolled in College of Engineering and College of Education distance education courses were asked to complete an online survey. Fifty-seven students responded. The majority of the participants were male (81%), anglo (65%), over 25 (97%) and enrolled in at least their third course delivered via distance education (58%). The predominance of males and anglos can be explained by the fact that the majority of the respondents were graduate students in the College of Engineering. Only one small class from the College of Education participated in this pilot study. The final study may prove to have a greater diversity of participants.

Factor analysis supported four constructs: Membership, Management, Web Technology, and Other Technology. Discussion of results is organized by these four constructs.

Highest response in construct membership was with the statement “Overall, I am satisfied with my distance education course.” The availability of the instructor and telling friends to take a distance course also received high agreement. Approximately 30% disagreed that they paid as much attention as they would in a regular class and that they felt encouraged to be involved in the class (Table 3).

In regard to management, 93% agreed that enrollment and registration met their needs and 91% felt the class was well organized. Twenty-six percent disagreed that materials were received in a timely fashion (Table 4). This can be explained by the high percentage of students who are engineers at a high security facility. Although materials were delivered to their place of employment by 10 o'clock the morning following each studio class, security requirements in their mail processing and distribution system considerably slowed the actual delivery to the students. International students (Mexico and Jamaica) who participated in the program were questioned directly about receiving materials in a timely fashion. They reported receiving materials more quickly than did the engineers at the high-security facility less than 200 miles from the origination campus.

There were two constructs related to technology. One appeared to focus on the Internet or, more specifically, WebCT. Over 90% indicated that they had no problem accessing the WebCT site and about 85% agreed that it was easy to pay attention to lectures on the Internet. However, over 30% voiced their dissatisfaction with graphics and other visuals on the WebCT site (Table 5). This factor may be addressed by requesting that faculty not scan handwritten notes into pdf format to be posted on the course sites. Additionally, faculty can be offered further instruction on the use of Whiteboard technology or be provided support staff to prepare all notes in PowerPoint format.

However, when students present spontaneous problems to the instructor in the classroom, whether at a distance or in the traditional classroom, there may be some difficulty in legibility particularly when capturing video to be streamed onto the WebCT sites. Either way, further faculty training can improve the quality of graphics. The use of an electronic white board rather than video capture of a classroom white board will also alleviate much of this problem.

The other technology construct focused on the variety of other media used as part of the course instruction. One hundred percent agreed that it was easy to use the variety of materials and 98% felt that viewing videotapes and video conferencing were not distracting. However, 72% indicated the quality of the audio did not support hearing students' comments (Table 6). To address this factor, it will be necessary to remind faculty to insist that students in the classroom key their microphones before speaking. Also, students in the traditional classroom may need to receive instructions on the courtesies of distance education and be reminded that their classes are being transmitted to or captured for distance students.

The two single items both related to technical problems. Fifty-six percent disagreed that technical problems interfered with learning. Seventy-two percent indicated that class participation was not inhibited by utilizing discussion posts as the primary form of participation. The 44 percent of students who felt that technical problems interfered with learning is most likely attributable to the use of the Texas Interactive Instructional Network (TI-IN) videoconferencing system that failed more often than functioned properly during the semester of this pilot study. An entirely new system is being installed in a major remodeling of the distance classrooms. The two-way audio/one-way video system that transmitted by phone lines to another city and transmitted back to the HealthNet satellite system for transmission to the satellite campuses will no longer be used. Of some concern are the students in the 28 percent who felt that class participation was inhibited by utilizing discussion posts as the primary form of participation. Offering faculty instruction on the ways to increase class participation through discussion posts may improve this factor. In the College of Education course involved in this study, the professor required discussion post participation as a percentage of the students' course grades. Once forced to participate in the discussion posts, the comments from most of the students were that they would not have participated as fully if not required to do so. This may be an option that professors may want to consider just as many require class participation as a function of grading in the traditional classroom.

Means of the four constructs ranged from 3.20 to 3.27 indicating an overall satisfaction with the distance education course. The overall mean dropped due to the addition of the two negatively worded items that did not load on any of the constructs (Table 7).

Additional analysis was conducted to determine if mean responses differed based upon demographic variables: sex, age, ethnicity, class, or experience. No differences based on these independent variables were detected.

The attention to the satisfaction of graduate students with distance education programs, the elements of which include video conferencing, the Internet, and multimedia technologies, is of concern to research institutions with their attention to graduate students and to institutions considering the next step after years of offering undergraduate programs. The purpose of this pilot study was to provide the groundwork for a more comprehensive study that will provide interested higher education institutions with insight into the factors of distance education that contribute to the greatest satisfaction in graduate distance learning students.

The first construct examined in this study, membership, found a high rate of overall satisfaction with the course, availability of instructors, and a positive referral to friends to take a distance course. Approximately 30 percent, however, admitted that they paid less attention than they would in a regular class and that they did not feel encouraged to become involved in the class. These two elements may be the result of factors examined in the technology construct. Due to the use of an outdated videoconferencing system poorly interfaced with the university's satellite delivery system, students often did not have audio or video connection with the origination site. Additionally, the inability to hear questions and comments made by other students may have discouraged attention to instructor responses to questions not heard by the viewer. New technology plus instructor attention to student keying of microphones when asking questions or making comments may improve these results.

In the examination of the management construct, the responses indicated a high level of satisfaction with management factors. However, one area of some concern was the students (26 percent) who felt that they did not receive materials in a timely fashion. This can be addressed from two different avenues. First, instructors can be encouraged to provide materials more quickly to the distance learning offices and return graded course work and examinations as soon as possible. Further, contractual agreements with companies could be altered to permit direct delivery of materials to students at their residences rather than going through, sometimes, high-level security company mail delivery systems.

Of the two constructs that focused on technology, the first dealt primarily with the Internet or, more specifically, WebCT use. Students reported a high level of satisfaction with lectures streamed on the WebCT sites, burned onto CDs to be viewed on their computers, and videotapes. They also reported a high level of satisfaction with use of the WebCT sites, access to the sites, and having access to the resources they required. However, more than 30 percent reported dissatisfaction with graphics and other visuals on the WebCT sites or in the videos. If financial resources permit, distance learning support staff can be provided to put all notes and problem solutions to be posted by faculty into a more legible format than handwritten notes scanned onto the sites. Faculty, when informed of the level of dissatisfaction, might develop digital templates to use in posting these materials. The remodeling of the distance learning facilities should include electronic whiteboards in all classrooms for faculty use rather than traditional white boards that can be difficult for students to see from a distance videoconferencing site or in captured video. Faculty should be provided the necessary training to use the electronic whiteboards with ease.

The second technology construct focused upon other media utilized in course instruction. There was extremely high satisfaction reported on ease of use of the materials and lack of distraction in their use. The one area of dissatisfaction was the inability to hear comments made by students in the classroom during videotaping or videoconferencing of the classes. Again, the installation of new videoconferencing equipment can eliminate some of this problem. Further, reinforcement to the faculty of the need to instruct students on the necessity of using microphones properly when asking questions or making comments should contribute to a higher level of satisfaction. Additionally, students should be reminded of the differences between the traditional classroom and the distance learning environment and asked to observe basic courtesies.

Of the two single items relating to technology, the major area of dissatisfaction (44% of the students) was the interference with learning by technical problems. As stated previously, the replacement of the TI-IN system may result in a major change in the reporting on that factor. The sole remaining item (28 percent of the students who felt that class participation was inhibited by the reliance of discussion postings as the primary form of participation) will require greater attention to pedagogy. Although seminars were provided in the past for distance education faculty, future seminars might include pedagogical emphasis on increasing class participation with the discussion postings and increasing class participation through other avenues. Faculty might consider requiring participation just as they would in the traditional classroom. Once the “ice is broken,” students may not be inhibited to participate in discussions utilizing discussion posts.

Finally, the language of the instrument will be further adjusted to even more accurately reflect the current technology utilized in the distance learning programs in the Texas Tech University College of Engineering and College of Education. Sorensen (1997) recommended more emphasis on support management functions as did this pilot study. She recommended increased attention to the level of interactivity in the distance class, which is recommended by this study in the form of attention to pedagogy, attention to correct utilization of microphones for student questions and comments, and the emphasizing of distance learning courtesies to students through a distance learning orientation.

This pilot study tentatively supports Sorensen's assessment that a distance-learning environment may be more suitable to a different level of instruction than the original study of community college students. Further, there appears to be support for the stability of the constructs across populations.