... overlap, warranting further examination. Finally, this study focused on student perceptions; future research should explore instructor perspectives and use longitudinal designs to examine long-term outcomes such as retention and academic performance. Practical implications This study highlights...

... with design and development, course organization has contributed to students’ perceptions of instructor presence. A well-structured course can serve as the first impression of the instructor and facilitate interpersonal relationships while providing subject matter expertise (Watson et al., 2023). Heilporn...