Celebrity endorsement in African context: TEARS model approach

The concept of celebrity is traceable to 18th and 19th century with Daniel Boorstein's notion of fame and famousness that deals with well-known-ness (Vinovrški & van Krieken, 2019). Sports and entertainment industry (Turner, 2013), the dawn of photography and press (Vinovrški & van Krieken, 2019), the emergence of the public sphere in 16th and 17th century (Lilti, 2017) and social life in twelfth century (Kleinberg, 2011) were the key drivers. Analysis of celebrity at the time was anchored on celebrity's social function, cultural production, impact and recognition (Vinovrški & van Krieken, 2019) and fame (Braudy, 1986), sociology of imitation (Tarde, 1903) and analysis of court society (Elias, 2006). Celebrity thinkers such as Lilti Antoine, Braudy Leo, Gabriel Tarde, Chris Rojeck and Wright Millsthought celebrity form different perspectives. Braudy (1986) considered it a consequence of transformation from fame; Lilti (2017) considered the essence of celebrity from social dimension, social esteem, thus, highlighting the impact of 18th century in the history of celebrity. Critically, the influence of 18th century on celebrity emergence lays on a paradigm shifts toward the presence of theatrical and literary personalities (Vinovrški & van Krieken, 2019).

These analyses were taken from diverse perspectives. In the political dimension, the lives of great men in the 18th century such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Napoleon influenced readers (Riall, 2007) in such way that motivated modern political age and led to the emergence of a personality cult. As for the business dimension, consumer identification with a celebrity leads to transference of meaning to one's life (Srivastava, 2011). This is despite its non-relational substance during the 18th century, when the dynamics of market forces were overshadowed by political and theatrical factors (Vinovrški & van Krieken, 2019). Within the context of social esteem, celebrities gained influence. In this case, Mills (1957) argued that celebrities have nothing other than celebrity-given, that “they occupy prestigious positions because they are celebrated instead of being celebrated for occupying lofty positions”.

The context of celebrity endorsement in African society has significant contributions on customer purchase and repeat purchases (Owusu-Mensah, Nimssah, & Mensah, 2013). Firms use it to influence consumers (Molelekeng & Dondolo, 2021) and promote their products (Pramjeeth & Majaye-Khupe, 2016). The strategy requires appropriate fit shared by the chosen celebrity, the brand and the advertised message (Oh & Park, 2020). In Nigeria, movie stars, athletes and musicians are used in commercials to endorse products (Ifeanyichukwu, 2016). Their image usage in endorsements does not always translate to success (Taylor, 2016; Pramjeeth & Majaye-Khupe, 2016) because the key focus is on product quality (Awobamisi & Yosra, 2018). Thus, celebrity expertise and trustworthiness are not the necessity:rather, consumer attitude and celebrity attractiveness are (Molelekeng & Dondolo, 2021). The key attributes of celebrity endorsement impact youth African students' purchase behavior (Omorodion & Osifo, 2019). There are match-up risks between the celebrity endorsement and patronage of endorsed brands (Nguyen, 2020), like the risk of loss of credibility by celebrities endorsing several brands (Mittal, 2017) and a higher consumer focus on the celebrity rather than the endorsed product (Erdogan, Baker, & Tagg, 2001). A significant problem in African local products is poor patronage (Noah & Kenneth-Adiele, 2018).

In Nigeria, the drive to improve patronage led to improvements of Aba small and medium-scale shoe enterprise (SMEs) clusters (Ikpefan, Kehinde, & Adegbuyi, 2006). The area has the largest presence of SMEs garment and shoe making in Nigeria (Ofurum, 2016): SMEs represent 90% of businesses (PwC Nigeria, 2020) and drive economic growth and development (Obi et al., 2018). However, its contribution is insignificant compared to other emerging economies like Asia (Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, 2020). The contribution is hindered by inadequate financing (Ozioma-Eleodinmuo, 2015), cheap imports from Asia, intense competition from large corporations, and inadequate commitment to investment that should spur commercial-scale operation (Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, 2020).

Recently, Abia State government trained 50,000 artisans (Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission, 2016), sponsored capacity building of 30 young shoemakers in China (Okoli, 2018), established Enyimba Automated Shoe Factory, and set a marketing and standard regulatory board to motivate the artisans (Ofurum, 2016). The plan is to make the shoemaking cluster in Aba the “shoe capital” in Nigeria (Ofurum, 2016). The level of ingenuity exhibited by the artisans led to the establishment of a common facility center in Aba through the partnership of Nigerian federal government and United Nations Industrial Development Organization (Ofurum, 2016). However, to enhance entrepreneurial ability, entrepreneurial education is vital (Tajpour, Aidin, & Elahe, 2020). It elicits target population's confidence to establish a business (Dana, Tajpour, Aidin, Elahe, & Mahnaz, 2021) and combats hindrances to entrepreneur's motivation (Otuya, Kibas, & Otuya, 2013). In practical terms, entrepreneurial education involves short-term training, that imbues skills and knowledge in establishing new businesses that deliver value in an abbreviated time (Tajpour, Hiroko, & Kursat, 2020). Studies show that it impacts development of technology-based ventures (Dana et al., 2021), thus justifying the sponsorship of Aba artisans.

Although entrepreneurial training is important, it is not enough to steer overwhelming patronage. Celebrity endorsements are used to enhance product popularity and certification (Kotler, 2009) and influence consumer behavior (Mishra, Roy, & Bailey, 2015). This happens by influencing consumer perception of the endorsed product (Mishra et al., 2015). Studies in African context often focus on aspects of celebrity endorsement on purchase intention (Molelekeng & Dondolo, 2021) and consumer perception of services (Awobamisi & Yosra, 2018; Omorodion & Osifo, 2019). The focus of this study is to examine the association between Nigeria celebrity's endorsement and consumer patronage and factors that motivate consumers' willingness to purchase locally produced footwear. An essential aspect of the study is the analysis of TEARS model.

The concept of celebrity is linked to individuals who hold respectable public profile (Zipporah & Mberia, 2014). Celebrities are associated with unique traits, fame and attractive characters (Hani, Marwan, & Andre, 2018). They help to influence customers purchase intention (Hani et al., 2018) and positive behavioral disposition to a product (Rai & Sharma, 2013). Celebrity is useful in getting high level of appeal, message recall and retention (Eyitayo, 2017) and gaining competitive advantage (Lord, Putrevu, & Collins, 2019). Most organizations adopt celebrity endorsement in product advertisement (Winterich, Gangwar, & Grewal, 2018). The celebrity's familiarity, similarity and likeability are critical elements in celebrity credibility (Fang & Jiang, 2015). Celebrity credibility deals with trustworthiness and expertise (Mikuláš & Světlík, 2016). It influences celebrity respect (Kazmi, 2020), brand recognition (Petty & Lindsey-Mullikin, 2006) and advertising effectiveness (Baffour, 2015).

TEARS model is central to this study, as it is vital in celebrity endorsement (Shimp, 2003). The attributes are consistent with combined attributes of source credibility theory and source attractiveness theory (McGuire, 1968). The model considers celebrity credibility and attractiveness attributes as the essential determinants of an endorser's effectiveness (Hennayake, 2017). Attributes are trustworthiness and expertise from source credibility theory, and attractiveness, respect and similarity from source attractiveness theory (McGuire, 1968). All of them are integrated in celebrity endorsement studies to understand consumer behavior (Awobamisi & Yosra, 2018). Celebrity credibility reflects expertise and trust (Dissanayake & Ismail, 2015): a credible endorser tends to positively influence attitude through internalization process (Euis, Basu, Purwanto, & Syahlani, 2014). It is critical when consumers express a negative attitude toward a brand (Belch & Belch, 2001), as attitude is vital in evaluating the celebrity and by extension the brand associated with them (Johansson & Bozan, 2017). When credible celebrities endorse a brand, customers tend to accept that brand (Erdogan, 1999). With credibility, the endorser is deemed trustworthy and considered to possess required expertise in the communication area (Goldsmith, Lafferty, & Newell, 2000). The endorser with credibility is more productive in advertisement to target consumers. Studies show that they can influence brand credibility and equity (Erdem & Swait, 1998), add value to consumers (Spry, Pappu, & Bettina Cornwell, 2011) and support brand recall and recognition (Johansson & Bozan, 2017).

The second general element of TEARS model is celebrity attractiveness (Shimp, 2003). It is an essential aspect of celebrity endorsement (Nyamakanga, Ford, & Viljoen, 2019), and it is associated to the endorser's physical appearance and attractiveness (Erdogan, 1999), personality, likeability and similarity to target audience (Nyamakanga et al., 2019). Attractiveness reflects the characteristics of physical attractiveness (Freeman & Chen, 2015), similarity to target audience in terms of demography, and personality traits (Jackson & Darrow, 2005). Respect to a celebrity highlights the celebrity's outstanding performance, appealing attributes and public admiration toward them (Brown & Marshall, 2006). Through these means, empathy is often created to have a persuasive appeal by matching the traits of the endorser to those of the target consumers (Belch & Belch, 2001). Evidence from previous studies indicate positive outcomes of using attributes of endorsers' attractiveness to influence purchase decisions (Johansson & Bozan, 2017).

Consumer purchases are often influenced by culture, socio-economic level, lifestyle and other environmental variables (Anyanwu, 2003). The major influences emanate from economic factors like price and income; personal features like age, gender and marital status; and psychological traits like perception (Ezirim, Oraene, Orji, Inyanga, & Anyanwu, 2005). In addition, quality attributes play a vital role in determining consumer willingness to purchase products. It influences product value (Ladewski & AI-Bayati, 2019) and impacts customer service delivery (Oloveze, Chukwuoyims, Ogbonna, & Anayochukwu, 2021). In essence, consumers' willingness to buy a product is determined by several factors.

The study used descriptive survey design. With an estimated population of 110,000+ (International Center for Investigative Reporting, 2017) as confirmed by Ofurum (2016) and Adegbite (2020), Adam's table for categorical data with 90% confidence level was used (Adam, 2020). With the table the sample size is 271. The study adopted a mix of snowball and purposive sampling. This enabled identification of adequate respondents that meet the purpose of the study. Data was collected through an online survey using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The link to the questionnaire with an invitation letter was sent to consumers of local footwear in South-East Nigeria. Regarding the TEARS model, four point scale measured the questions on each dimension (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree; see Table 1). The scale is appropriate when researchers want to eliminate the chance of misusing the midpoint (Chyung, Roberts, Swanson, & Hankinson, 2017), minimize social desirability bias (Garland, 1991) and respondents are comfortable with the subject matter (Johns, 2005). After reliability analysis, an overall developed TEARS dimension shows a Cronbach alpha of 0.84, which is acceptable (Nunally, 1978). Content validity approach was adopted by using the recommendation of Taherdoost (2016) and Lawshe (1975), which specifically relies on content validity ratio (CVR) and essential inputs of panel experts. A ten expert panel was used to validate the instrument, from which nine essential inputs were returned. The minimum value for nine experts according to Lawshe (1975) is 0.78, thus, CVR of 0.8 from essential inputs of nine experts validates the instrument.

The attributes of the TEARS model were analyzed with a Likert scale. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to identify the relationship between celebrity endorsement and patronage of locally produced footwears through SPSS v21. Logistic regression was applied to predict the odd values of the predictors due to their categorical nature.

The logistic regression model for factors that influence consumers' willingness to purchase locally produced footwear is,

and is given as,

Where:

• Y = willingness to purchase locally made footwears (Dummy: 1 = desire to buy, 0 = zero unwillingness to buy)

• $π$ = The probability of willingness to purchase locally made footwears

• Β_i = regression coefficients associated with the reference group

• X₁ = quality (very low, low, high, very high)

• X₂ = Price (naira)

• X₃ = Income (naira)

• X₄ = Marital status (married = 1, not married = 0)

• X₅ = Consumer awareness (high, medium and low)

• X₆ = Recommendation (yes = 1, no = 0)

• X₇ = Attractiveness (yes = 1, no = 0)

• X₈ = Education (years)

• X₉ = Age (years)

• X₁₀ = Sex (male = 1, female = 0)

• X₁₁ = National sentiment (yes = 1, no = 0)

• X₁₂ = Household size (number)

• X₁₃ = Perception (yes = 1, no = 0)

Out of the total distributed questionnaires, 78% were used. The remaining (22%) were screened out for inadequacy. Results show 55.6% male, 44.4% female in the sample, being 49.2% aged 16–25 years and 44.4% 26–35 years, making these tiers the key age groups of the individuals in the study. On the other hand, 6% are 36–45 years while less than 1% is above 46 years. The age mean is 26.93. Result on marital status shows 68.9% for single and 30.1% for married, while divorced and widow(er) count for less than 1%. The educational category displays 75.2% having post-secondary education, 17.6% having post-graduate education and 7.2% holds secondary education. As for household size, 49.6% are 4–6 people households, 41.5% are 1–3, 7.2% are 7–9 and 2.0% are 10. The average for household size is 3.93. Income results indicate that 104 persons or 68.2% earn up to 50,000 monthly income, 43 persons or 28.3% have income between 50,001 and 100,000, 5 of them earn between 100,001 and 150,000, while less than 1% earn between 150,001 and 200,000. Average monthly income is 42,589.77.

The attributes of TEARS model in Table 1 show various implications from consumer ratings. The results point the direction to influencing demand for endorsed products. The overall mean score of each of the TEARS attributes is above 3.0, while individual mean scores for the attribute items ranged from 2.7 to 3.3. This is above the 2.5 cut-off region decision criteria. Thus, results on attributes are all accepted.

The result of the relationships between celebrity credibility, celebrity attractiveness and patronage of locally produced footwear as presented in Table 2 indicates that the relationship between celebrity credibility and patronage of locally produced footwear is not significant at p = 0.442. Thus, celebrity credibility is not associated with patronage of local footwears. Similarly, the result on the relationship between celebrity attractiveness and patronage of local footwears is not significant at p = 0.722. Thus, this hypothesis is rejected.

Logistic regression was performed to ascertain the influence of the explanatory variables on the likelihood of consumers (not) being willing to purchase locally produced footwears. The results include the odds ratios, confidence intervals, significance levels and goodness-of-fit statistics of the model as presented in Table 3. At 0.01 p-value and 95% confidence interval, sex, age, price, income, recommendation and quality had a significant influence on probability of consumers being willing to purchase local footwears. At 0.05 p-value and 95% confidence interval, attractiveness is significant. Consequently, the null hypothesis is rejected. Out of the 13 explanatory variables, six were dropped since they had no significant contribution to the model. The logistic model was established using the seven significant explanatory variables through Walds statistics.

Specifically, for every unit-increase in sex, the parameter is equal to 1.692 after controlling the influence of the other variables, the odds of occurring at 5.430. In age variable, for every unit-increase, the parameter is equal to −0.139, odds of occurring are 0.870 after controlling the influence of the other explanatory variables. For price variable, the parameter is equal to 000; the odds of occurring are 1.000 when holding other variables constant. Similarly, the parameter for income is equal to 000, with odds of occurrence also at 1.000 while controlling the influence of other variables. With recommendation, the parameter is equal to 2.469 for every unit-increase, with odds of occurrence is 11.812 times higher for the mean of explanatory variables while controlling the influence of the other variables. The parameter of quality variable is equal to 1.117 for every unit-increase. The odds of occurring are 3.055 times higher for the means of explanatory variables while holding the influencing of the other variables. Lastly, the parameter for attractiveness is equal to 0.517, with odds of occurring being 1.676 times higher than the mean of the explanatory variables while holding the influence of the other variables. Cox and Snell R² of 0.249 and Nagelkerke R² of 0.471 show fit of the data, though they also indicate a weak relationship between the response variable and explanatory variables. However, low R² in social sciences still represents a good model following an inherently more significant amount of unexplainable variation in human behavior (Frost, 2019).

The socio-economic profile of the respondents shows a balanced mix of gender in the study. With a mean age of 26 years, young adults formed the core of the study. The education indicates high academic level of the respondents. Education is often associated with product selection and consumer adoption (Oteh, Ibok, & Nto, 2017). It influences consumer knowledge, which impacts brand selection, preference and equity (Rajagopal & Rajagopal, 2020). The result of household size justifies the significant role it plays in purchase decision, because bigger household size means higher expenditures (Ayyash & KunSek, 2020). On the other hand, income mean of 42,589.77 is an indicator of the influence of income on what is purchased. Income level impacts quantity purchased and quality of purchases.

The results of TEARS model indicate how the attributes can influence locally produced footwear. The mean rating for trustworthiness of the endorser has high consumer ratings in terms of reliability, attractiveness and patronage. When consumers trust an endorser, this influences their attitude toward the product (Friis-Jespersen, 2017). This is because they tend to develop a certain level of reliability on endorsed products. As for endorser's expertise, consumers highly rate their skill, competence and ability in endorsing quality products. The rating is a direct pointer to consumers' positive views of celebrity endorsement of local footwears. This can influence consumer behavior about quality of local brands and product performance (Goldsmith et al., 2000). Celebrity attractiveness has high mean score of 3.14. The good rating indicates that celebrities can make ads appealing when endorsing local products. This can generate consumer attraction to the endorsed brand and subsequent patronage, especially when consumers are attracted to the endorser (Ifeanyichukwu, 2016). The finding on respect for celebrities shows the consideration consumers devote to them in Nigeria: consumers tend to match celebrity reputation to endorsed brands. When they see them as role models, there is a tendency of being influenced by their role model's endorsed product. Thus, consumer likeability toward endorser can translate into likeability toward the endorsed product. This type of endorsement can influence consumer purchase decision (Ifeanyichukwu, 2016). Consumers rate celebrity similarity high at 3.08. Celebrities that carry an image similar to product attributes tend to command high influence on consumer patronage. In other words, congruence between endorser's and product's attributes can motivate consumers to patron locally produced footwear (Johansson & Bozan, 2017). The results of TEARS model imply that consumers generally have good disposition about the use of celebrities in endorsing products. They consider celebrities to be one of the influences on purchase action, especially when there is visible association of the celebrity to the product on one hand, and the celebrity and consumer on the other hand.

The test results on relationship between celebrity credibility and patronage of locally produced footwear are not significant. Though consumers expressed their view about usefulness of celebrities in endorsing products, for locally produced products the test found no relationship between the variables. The researchers consider that the environment can be associated with the result. This is because two of the key attributes of the environment where the study was conducted are youthfulness and income (42,590) above Nigeria's 30,000 monthly minimum wage. Particularly, the income can place them in a position of preference for foreign made goods since they can afford it. Also, their youthfulness, as it detaches subjects from the responsibilities of marriage, can make them afford to spend on foreign products which are generally costlier than locally produced footwears.

The analysis of the logistic regression shows that generally, given the Wald test, recommendation and quality had the greatest influence on the likelihood of consumers' willingness to purchase locally produced footwears. Specifically, the result shows that the nexus between income, price and consumers' willingness to purchase products is positive as confirmed in literature (Olayinka & Aminu, 2006). Income is often associated with household consumption behavior (Aryusmar, 2020): it determines the extent of discretionary expenditures such as footwear and indicates the capacity to pay for (in)expensive goods. The result provides evidence that supports influence on consumption patterns by variables like age and gender (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Regarding recommendation, the impact is present when it is linked to sources people trust such as endorsers. A channel of product information is assumed to provide inputs on product description, which aids in evaluation based on the source's expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Information from experts can enhance the value of information in a message (Euis et al., 2014). The result of quality is confirmed by Noah and Kenneth-Adiele (2018) and emphasizes the value of durability, trustworthiness and guarantee. It provides the understanding that consumers buy both physical product and the product's intrinsic value (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Concerning attractiveness, a one-unit-increase in attractiveness of local brand will increase the odd of willingness to purchase local brands by 51%. Generally, consumers tend to purchase attractive products that are aesthetic and innovative. This corroborates Ifeanyichukwu (2016), who established a positive relationship between attractiveness and purchase decision. Therefore, consumers are more likely to adopt locally produced brands which are attractive to their existing lifestyle than brands which do not attract them.

Firstly, the results of TEARS model have extant implications of using celebrity endorsement to influence local brand patronage. The positive consumer ratings imply that consumers will pay attention to endorsed local brands, for which the celebrity must be trusted, respected, attractive and have the capability to show expertise and similarity to the endorsed brand. These are cues that managers must pay attention in choosing any celebrity. TEARS model attributes call for a match-up with the characteristics of the brand.

Secondly, this study indicates that the fundamental component that managers must consider is celebrity attractiveness and respect. Selecting celebrities that are attractive and respected is important because it implies that they will improve the chances of eliciting positive response from consumers to endorsed local brands. This arises from their likeability and tendency to make commercials attractive as they are.

Lastly, the study provides insight on the important factors that managers can focus on to increase the propensity of consumers to purchase local footwear. The key implication is for managers to use factors such as recommendation by celebrities, attractiveness of the footwear and quality, to drive consumer willingness to purchase. This will become more productive in scenarios where there is appropriate match-up of these factors with the celebrity attractiveness and respect.

The source credibility and attractiveness theory is not significantly associated with patronage. However, the dimensions of the TEARS model – which focuses on the attributes of the source credibility and attractiveness theory – show that the attributes have positive consumer ratings in endorsing local brands. The key implication of the finding is that though expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness, respect and similarity are the key attributes, celebrity attractiveness and respect have greater consumer response to local brand patronage. This implies that the source of information is fundamental in advertising quality local brands. This can be significant when dealing with product match-up model.

The study used cross-sectional survey and a limited sample size. This can pose problems in generalization. A larger sample size with multi-geographical context and longitudinal survey will provide deeper insight into consumers' appetite for foreign footwears. However, future studies that consider utilizing product match-up model and meaning transfer model while focusing on using international and local celebrities to endorse a local brand can be informative.

The footwear industry in Nigeria is an essential component of the Made-in-Nigeria brand despite poor patronage that is occasioned by foreign competition. Celebrity endorsement is a way to improve local patronage. Evidence shows that the key attributes of celebrity endorsement (celebrity credibility and attractiveness) have no relationship with willingness to buy. However, positive results of TEARS model point to the measure of influence, which may impact on consumers when matching-up the attributes to the local brand. In this regard, the significant factors such as product quality are indicated to be of more importance than celebrity endorsement as confirmed (Awobamisi & Yosra, 2018) and not just use of celebrity endorsement in commercials which others indicate were key to influencing consumer behavior (Ifeanyichukwu, 2016). Thus, the study confirms that the TEARS model and the significant factors area solution to promote consumers' willingness to purchase locally made footwears.