This paper aims to review multidimensional wheel force sensing technology across automobiles, aircraft landing gears, planetary rovers and wheeled/wheel-legged robots and establish a unified framework linking contact load generation, sensor transduction, calibration, dynamic processing and application-oriented use of wheel-force information.
Representative studies are compared from six aspects: contact stress equivalence, load transfer and sensing transduction, error propagation and coordinate transformation, linear and nonlinear decoupling calibration, dynamic filtering and multisource fusion and closed-loop applications of wheel-force information.
Although the application scenarios differ in contact media, structural constraints and engineering objectives, they share a common technical chain involving rotating-coordinate errors, structural-signal coupling, working-condition migration and long-term drift. The field has evolved from static offline measurement to dynamic online perception. Interpretable nonlinear methods, online recalibration and multisource fusion are emerging as the most promising directions.
The review takes multidimensional wheel force sensing, rather than a single industry, as the central object of discussion. It integrates common mechanisms across automotive, aerospace, planetary rover and robotic studies and highlights future extensions toward wheel-end and joint-actuation systems.
