Short video narratives and Porter’s framework: the role of parasocial interaction

Short video narratives have stepped up the social media environment and replaced conventional message formats to become the predominant information presentation in viral and interactive marketing (Alamäki et al., 2023; Du et al., 2022; Yoo et al., 2023). People are more attracted to short videos than graphics or text because of their multisensory nature and more interactive, entertaining and engaging content (Dolasinski and Reynolds, 2023; Polat et al., 2023; Simmonds et al., 2020). This emerging concept of short video narrative is important and receiving academic recognition from diverse viewpoints (Cao et al., 2021; Mohammed et al., 2023a). Recent studies have indicated that short video narratives persuade young adults to receive the human papillomavirus vaccination (Rey et al., 2024), sport injury psychology (Everard et al., 2023), diabetes mellitus (En et al., 2023) and shared sense of meaningfulness (Zhao et al., 2023). These studies (Fang et al., 2023; Yin et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2023) examine how tourism short video narratives create destination distinctiveness, and travel inspiration. Again, Mohammed et al. (2023b) established that short videos created by tourists on social media platforms can trigger patronage intention. Nevertheless, how these short video narratives can create a sense of cost and differentiation is limited in the literature.

To address this knowledge gap, the following issue is posed: Do short video narratives create a sense of cost focus and differentiation focus? For instance, cost focus (Coulombel et al., 2019) and differentiation are important indicators in travel decisions. Thus, short video narratives created by tourists can be a source of cost and differentiation information. Previous research suggested that cost focus (price reasonableness) elicit in tourism setting has an impact on tourist attitude (Jeaheng et al., 2023), and enjoyable short video narrative has created a sense of awareness which subsequently leads to intention to patronise (Mohammed et al., 2024a). Again, limited research has examined how cost and differentiation could lead to intention to visit. Similarly, this research answers request for additional investigation of how short video narratives can complement marketing strategies (Agrawal and Mittal, 2025; Chen et al., 2024) such as Porter’s framework.

Likewise, when tourists post a short video from their trip on social media, viewers may engage in parasocial interaction, which results in the audience and media developing an intermediary relationship based on illusion (Horton and Wohl, 1956; Wu and Lai, 2023). The degree of intimacy that the viewer felt with the traveller who shared the video could change how strong the relationship is. In other words, the link between differentiation and cost on behavioural intention may be enhanced by parasocial interaction. Although several studies in the area of tourism have explored parasocial interaction, the construct was used in a diverse way by focusing on it as an outcome variable (Haobin Ye et al., 2021), independent variable (Chen et al., 2022) and mediator (Shen et al., 2022). Despite these endeavours, the findings across studies have yielded mixed results. One potential reason might be underutilisation of parasocial interaction as a moderator (Wu and Lai, 2023). To address this evident gap, the current research considers how the interaction between the one who shared the video, and the potential tourist could enhance information about cost focus and differentiation focus (Porter, 1980). Specifically, we examined the moderating impact of parasocial interaction between cost and differentiation focuses on intention to visit.

In investigating these relationships, one, we contribute to the nascent literature on the utilisation of narrative transportation with Porter’s framework (Green and Brock, 2000; Porter, 1980), by revealing that short video narratives give insights of destinations cost and differentiation focuses, subsequently, cost leads to intention to visit. Two, by showing that parasocial interaction moderated the effects between cost and differentiation on intention to visit, we offer a nuanced understanding of the effect of parasocial interaction and add to the discussion of the construct as an external variable which is considered limited within the travel and tourism marketing literature.

Typically, short videos are brief, lasting less than a minute (Cao et al., 2021; Wu and Lai, 2023). Furthermore, studies (Journault et al., 2024; Khan et al., 2024; Seekis and Kennedy, 2023) have established that short videos can last for more than a minute due to upgrades of some social media platforms. Thus, tourists who have visited a destination and recorded a short video can conveniently post them on various networks (Mohammed et al., 2023b). Viewers have the opportunity to like, comment and interact with the tourist after watching the short video. With the help of that quick response option, viewers can virtually get to know the tourist and engage in parasocial interactions (Jarzyna, 2021; Zheng et al., 2020). Viewers may see user-generated content which is created by tourists as being more genuine and trustworthy than agency-generated content (i.e. tour guides, influencers or bloggers) (Hautz et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2024). Tourist generated short videos (Liu et al., 2025) are gradually assisting in creating destination awareness, image and value, which subsequently leads to intention to patronise. Hence, the current study focuses on tourist-generated short videos and how such videos can effectively communicate strategic value propositions, namely, cost and differentiation, which remain underexplored in tourism literature.

Narrative transportation refers to the immersive involvement in a story’s world during reading or viewing of a video (Green and Brock, 2000). As the immersion in the narrative deepens, so does its ability to influence individuals more significantly (Winkler et al., 2023). This study opined that presenting travel experiences through short narrative videos can provide potential tourists information about cost and differentiation focus, which is unexplored in travel and tourism literature. Generally, Porter’s (1980) framework revealed that a company must decide whether to focus on wide or specific market sectors to succeed in the marketplace. Porter (1985) proposed that for a business to have a competitive edge, it should implement the two fundamental strategies, which might involve giving the client the lowest delivered price and presenting a unique or differentiated product.

Thus, a company’s cost structure and capacity to set itself apart from competitors are its two primary sources of competitive advantage (Pearson et al., 2015). For example, Porter (1996) opined that while cost is determined by the activities and the advantage in cost efficiency obtained by carrying out a particular task more successfully than rivals, differentiation results from choice of initiatives and the way they are carried out. Considering the context of this study which is horti-tourism, characterised with visitation to “fruit orchards, vegetable gardens, and flower gardens, for research, enjoyment, and involvement in cultivation activities (i.e. harvesting, planting)” (Kuchi et al., 2017). This current research focuses on a niche form of agri-tourism that blends leisure with agricultural engagement. Often referred to as entertainment farming, horti-tourism is an emerging tourism segment that requires innovative and targeted marketing strategies to attract and retain visitors (Gyawali et al., 2022). This context is particularly well suited to Porter’s (1985) cost and differentiation framework because horti-tourism destinations could frequently compete on either offering unique, immersive experiences such as hands-on harvesting or rare botanical exhibits (e.g. differentiation) or by promoting affordable, accessible rural gateways (i.e. cost). Moreover, the tangible and sensorial nature of horti-tourism experiences makes them ideal for communication through storytelling, where immersion can accentuate either value (cost) or uniqueness (differentiation).

The utilisation of tourist-generated short videos explaining cost focus and differentiation focus has not been given the needed academic attention. Wu and Peng (2025) established that tourist-generated short videos created a sense of awareness and image. To achieve business success based on cost focus, a company must be able to offer its goods or services for less than what its rivals can (Correia et al., 2023). According to Porter (1985), a company that wants to differentiate itself from its competitors must be unique in its business and offer features that consumers (i.e. visitors) find appealing. Benefits obtained with uniqueness are destined to last since rival heritage sites find it difficult to replicate distinctiveness practices like planting and harvesting (Mohammed et al., 2022a). Therefore, there is a greater opportunity for tourism destinations such as horti-tourism to capitalise on the sustainable advantage of the emerging concept of short video narratives (Wang et al., 2023a). That is usually taken by tourists who have experienced the destination to communicate the destination’s cost focus and differentiation focus.

While the relationship between narrative structures and strategic communication is nascent, we argue that narrative transportation, the process by which individuals become cognitively and emotionally immersed in a story (Green and Brock, 2000) serves as a mechanism through which short video content can convey key dimensions of Porter’s (1985) competitive strategies. Specifically, immersive narratives can enhance perceptions of differentiation by highlighting unique cultural, aesthetic or experiential elements of a destination, while simultaneously signalling cost advantages by showcasing affordability, value-for-money or practical travel trips. By mapping the emotional engagement of viewers onto strategic messaging, short videos not only influence destination image but also serve as tacit signals of competitive positioning in an increasingly saturated digital market space (Liu et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2024).

The primary emphasis in tourism research has consistently revolved around understanding the intentions of tourists (Li et al., 2021; Lv et al., 2022; Tassiello and Tillotson, 2020; Wang et al., 2023b). Purchase intention, as defined by Dodds et al. (1991), pertains to the likelihood of customers planning to buy a specific product or service. In the context of tourism, this concept translates to the intention of visiting a particular destination. The intention to visit refers to the likelihood that tourists will choose to visit a particular destination (Zeithaml et al., 1996). Upon seeing short tourism videos, potential travellers conjure up images and occasions they could encounter in the destinations showcased (Cao et al., 2021). This visual depiction creates a sense of safety, security and clean air, which activates intention to patronise (Pal and Srivastava, 2024). Therefore, potential tourists might have higher intention to visit a destination if that short video narrative depicts scenes of cost and differentiation.

An individual’s “one-way” relationship with a media persona is called a parasocial interaction (Giles, 2002; Sheng et al., 2025). The perception of reciprocal awareness, attention, and connection between an audience and a media person that only happens during media exposure is known as parasocial interaction, and this phenomenon gives viewers the idea that the media persona is speaking directly to them (Jia et al., 2024; Nah, 2022). The sensation is just as genuine and profound as an in-person relationship (Xu et al., 2023). Information is more reliable when it appears more intimate and harmonious during parasocial interactions (Leite and Baptista, 2022), which in turn affects how viewers behave (Lu et al., 2023). Empirical literature has established that “parasocial interaction moderated the relationship between awe and viewers’ attitude toward the short video narratives” (Wu and Lai, 2023, p. 12). Similarly, Liu et al. (2023) demonstrated that parasocial interaction moderates the relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intentions. Additionally, Tukachinsky and Stever (2019) found that viewers of short videos often perceived themselves as an extension of the individuals featured in the videos, which can, in turn, lead to behavioural intentions.

Building on this, the study proposed that parasocial interaction moderates the effect of cost and differentiation on intention to visit. The rationale is that when viewers feel a parasocial bond with the content creator, they are more likely to internalise strategic messages such as affordability (cost focus) or uniqueness (differentiation focus) as authentic and relevant to their own preferences. In parasocial interaction conditions, messages framed around cost savings may feel more personally endorsed, thus enhancing intention. Likewise, differentiation appeals (e.g. unique features of a horti-tourism destination) may feel more compelling when delivered by a persona with whom the viewer feels a parasocial connection. Thus, parasocial interaction intensifies the persuasive impact of strategic content by amplifying both cognitive resonance and emotional alignment, positioning it as a meaning moderator in the relationship between cost and differentiation on intention to visit.

Short video narratives have become a powerful tool for tourist engagement and destination decision-making (Gan et al., 2023). When tourists share user-generated short video content about their experiences, these narratives help shape destination awareness, perceived value and emotional connection, ultimately influencing intention to visit (Mohammed et al., 2024b). Such content serves to visually and emotionally “narrow” the destination space for viewers by making it more relatable and accessible. Prior research has shown that short video narratives enhance destination image (Pachucki et al., 2022), brand attitude (Wang et al., 2023a) and perceived uniqueness (Yin et al., 2023). Furthermore, Bai et al. (2023) highlight that user-generated video content increases both destination familiarity and behavioural involvement. Despite this growing body of work, limited attention has been paid to how short video narratives communicate strategic positioning messages consistent with Porter’s (1985) cost leadership and differentiation strategies in tourism marketing. In this study, we conceptualise cost focus not merely as low pricing or perceived price reasonableness, but as a strategic orientation that emphasises value efficiency: that is, offering affordable experiences without compromising essential service or experience quality. In contrast, differentiation focus refers to emphasising unique features, immersive experiences or distinctive attributes that set the destination apart from others. In the context of short video narratives, we argue that tourist-generated content can reflect these strategic messages, which then shape the viewer’s behavioural intention. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

Cost focus is a strategic approach in which an organisation focuses its efforts on reducing costs within a particular niche (Shank and Govindarajan, 1993). Contextually, a cost-focused approach in managing horti-tourism destinations can result in more affordable travelling fees, tour packages or amenities. When tourists capture these cost-effective experiences in their short videos (Komarac and Ozretić Došen, 2023; Mardhiyani and Budiastuti, 2021), it attracts budget-conscious travellers who may be more inclined to visit a destination that offers value for money. Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Differentiation focus is defined as a strategic tool used by a firm to provide specific limited products or services that are distinct and exclusive (Parnell, 2006). This approach involves offering unique and remarkable offerings to stand out from competitors within a chosen niche (Fluhrer and Brahm, 2023; Shiu, 2023). Thus, a horti-tourism destination adopting a differentiation focus can offer distinctive features such as traditional/cutting-edge technologies in planting and cultivation, and unique plant species. Tourists capturing these distinctive elements in short videos can create a sense of curiosity and uniqueness, motivating others to visit and experience the destination themselves. Perceived destination distinctiveness significantly influences electronic word-of-mouth, destination image, according to a previous study (Yin et al., 2023), which we concluded that tourist-generated short video narrative of differentiation focus can lead to intention to visit. Therefore, this hypothesis is proposed:

Academic debates have argued that parasocial interaction happens when viewers feel they have a personal relationship with the characters in a short video (Horton and Wohl, 1956; Stein et al., 2024). It has been proposed that this increased engagement during fleeting moments (Jin et al., 2021), helps viewers comprehend the destination better (Bi et al., 2021). The relationship between behavioural intentions and performance expectancy is moderated by parasocial interaction (Liu et al., 2023). If viewers have a parasocial interaction with “the tourist who generated the short video, they may engage in more cognitive processing and pay more attention to the short video, thus affecting intention to visit the destination”. Hence, the relationship between Porter’s framework (cost focus and differentiation focus) (Figure 1) and intention to visit may be strengthened, leading to the following proposed hypotheses:

Travellers frequently use apps like TikTok, to share videos and exchange information about their experiences (Mohammed et al., 2023b). The extensive use of smartphone applications that share short videos, like TikTok, has led to many people forming the habit of watching short videos, with some people revealing that seeing videos about tourism could inspire them to think about travelling to the places that are featured (Du et al., 2022; Yin et al., 2023). The sampling frame for this study is those who watch short horti-tourism videos generated and posted by travellers who have visited the destination on TikTok and other social media platforms. According to Statista, as of January 2024, Ghana registered 7.4 million social media users. Based on the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sample size determination table, this study projected a sample size of 1536.

Using the Likert five-point scale ranging from “1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree”, all constructs are measured. Four items about short video narrative were adapted from Cao et al. (2021). Section 2 is on cost focus and differentiation focus, with four items adapted from Li and Li (2008) for each respectively. Section 3 captured parasocial interaction, with four items adapted from Haobin Ye et al. (2021), and four items of intention to visit were adapted from Lee et al. (2018). Finally, the demographic information was captured in the last section.

The study distributed the questionnaire online. Before attempting to answer the questionnaire, the respondents were asked if they had visited or watched any of the short videos before. It was surprising to learn that none of the participants had previously visited the destination or watched the videos. After watching the short videos, the participants were invited to fill out the questionnaire. A total of 1214 responses were generated, which were free from response bias (Nulty, 2008) and fall above the minimum required sample size for structural equation modelling (SEM) (Hair et al., 2010).

Earlier, we selected two concise TikTok short videos characterised by a high degree of narrativity, recounting the personal experiences of tourists visiting a horti-farm. These videos were chosen based on multiple criteria that reflect both their narrative richness and their representativeness of typical tourist-generated short videos in the horti-tourism context. First, both videos employed immersive first-person storytelling, aligning with the narrative structure commonly used by tourist influencers and everyday users alike (Gan et al., 2023). Second, they provided visually rich and informative content about horticultural resources and on-site activities, showcasing crops such as cocoa, tomatoes, lettuce and cabbage thus reflecting the experiential and educational focus typical of horti-tourism (Gyawali et al., 2022). Third, the videos adhered to the common conventions of platform-native short tourism content: vertical format with high engagement features such as direct-to-camera narration, ambient farm sounds and overlaid text for key information (Cao et al., 2021; Wu and Lai, 2023). Finally, these videos gained organic engagement (e.g. likes, shares and comments), suggesting they resonated with real audiences and represent mainstream tourist communication behaviour on TikTok. Collectively, these criteria ensured that the selected videos were not only rich in narrativity but also typical exemplars of short video tourism storytelling in this niche.

From the tourist’s perspective, the first short video narrates the experience of a female visitor exploring the first cocoa farm in Ghana, located in the Eastern Region, known as Tetteh Quarshie Cocoa Farm. The video, titled “Visiting and Experiencing the First Cocoa Farm in Ghana”, had a duration of 4 min, aligning with TikTok’s recommended video length range. The narrative voice is as follows:

The second video features a young man and his colleagues who have visited the Tuba Irrigation Farm, located in the Ga South Municipality of the Greater Accra Region. The video was named “my experience on Tuba Irrigation Farm” and lasted for 1 min which is also within the recognised function of TikTok. The narrative voice is as follows:

Due to STATA’s capability to handle models with larger sample sizes and a limited number of indicators for each construct (Bollen, 1989; Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1993; Mohammed et al., 2022b), this study opted to use STATA for testing the proposed hypotheses. Furthermore, the research model incorporated a moderating variable, specifically parasocial interaction, achieved by multiplying the explanatory variables of cost and differentiation with the moderator (Chin et al., 2003), using STATA version 15 (Preko et al., 2021). The demographic findings revealed that “60% of the sampled participants were females”, 48.5% of the respondents were between the age bracket of 30–39, and “58.5% held a bachelor’s degree”. In terms of frequency of “TikTok usage, 60.8% of the participants use TikTok more than three times a day”, and 30.2% intended to travel for entertainment farming and mere curiosity. Prior to this, a pilot involving 46 respondents was conducted to assess the validity of the proposed items under each construct. Following this, a reliability analysis of the latent constructs was performed using Cronbach’s alpha. The results indicated that the Cronbach’s alpha values for all latent constructs were above 0.70.

The descriptive statistics in Table 1 indicate how the respondents strongly agree, agree, are neutral, disagree and strongly disagree with the constructs of the study. Using the mean scores, parasocial interaction recorded the highest average mean score of 4.448, which is an indication that the respondents agree with this dimension as a factor that could explain the relationship between Porter’s framework and intention to visit. Short video narratives, cost focus and intention to visit had average mean scores of 4.296, 3.797 and 3.633, respectively, which showed that the respondents agreed with the questions under these constructs. However, the participants disagreed with the construct differentiation focus, which accounted for a mean score of 2.443. The low mean may reflect a genuine de-prioritisation of differentiation strategies within the sample context, potentially due to market conditions, industry norms or resource constraints. In SEM analysis, acceptable ranges for skewness are generally between (−2 and +2) and for kurtosis (−7 and +7) (Bollen, 1989; Kline, 2023; West et al., 2012). The variables listed in Table 2 fall within these recommended cut-offs. Specifically, skewness ranges from +0.676 to −2.235, while kurtosis values range from +5.508 to −1.037. These findings show that the highest skewness value is +0.676, and the highest kurtosis value is +5.508, both of which fall within the recommended thresholds. Therefore, the data meet the descriptive or normality assumption, supporting the use of SEM for further analysis.

The factor loadings of the measurement items are shown in Table 2, and it is noteworthy that every value is higher than the cutoff of 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Both the “Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values surpassed 0.7, and the values of average variance extracted” were found to exceed 0.5 (Hair et al., 2019). These findings indicate that all the results are satisfactory, signifying that “reliability and convergent validity have been successfully attained”. In addition, in Table 3, “the square root of AVE of each instrument was higher than the correlations between the construct and all other instruments, which supported discriminant validity” (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

The outcome of Harman’s one-factor tests in this study revealed that the resulting variance was 30.971%. Therefore, based on this analysis, there is no indication of common method bias in the data set (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). The measurement model was presented as “x² = 1089.956, df = 124, p = 0.001, RMSEA = 0.12, CFI = 0.90, TLI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.07”, which shows a poor fit. The model was refined through the modification indices. An examination of the modification indices suggested that an improvement in the overall goodness of fit of the model could be achieved by allowing cost to correlate with differentiation, and this path therefore added to the model. The findings of the revised model demonstrated acceptable values “x² = 1076.563, df = 137, p = 0.001, RMSEA = 0.07, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, SMR = 0.001”, revealing that the structural model fits the data and the stipulated thresholds (Barrett, 2007; Steiger, 2007).

The results of the hypotheses presented in Table 4 revealed that short video narrative has a significant positive influence on cost focus (t = 23.660, p < 0.001), and differentiation focus (t = 1.910, p < 0.05), supporting H1a-b. Cost focus has a significant positive influence on intention to patronise (t = 13.770, p < 0.001), supporting H2. However, differentiation focus does not have a significant positive influence on intention to visit (t = 0.240, p > 0.05), not supporting H3. The moderating effect of parasocial interaction revealed that the viewers’ interactions with the tourist who generated the short video strengthens the relationship between cost focus (t = 11.750, p < 0.001), and differentiation focus (t = 4.040, p < 0.001), on intention to visit, supporting H4a-b. Thus, the intention to visit the destination was strengthened when viewers interact with the tourist who generated the short videos. The explained variance (R²) in the direct relationships was 47.612% while the introduction of the hypothesis shows a slightly higher value of 52.151% (see Table 4). This reflects an increase in percentage points in R², which can be attributed to the inclusion of the moderating effects.

The results showed that short video narratives have a positive significant impact on cost focus and differentiation focus which contributed to the limited literature in this domain (Pachucki et al., 2022; Yin et al., 2023). Table 3 reveals an intriguing finding: viewers’ favourable cost focus is more effectively influenced by short video narratives than differentiation focus. More specifically, short video narratives have a stronger effect on cost focus than differentiation focus. Since cost focus refers to affordable travelling fees, tour packages, or amenities, while differentiation focus refers to distinctiveness and exclusiveness (Parnell, 2006). This suggests that viewers are more interested in learning about the travel cost and tour packages than knowing about the unique features of the destinations. The contrast impact in the video might meet the psychological needs of the viewers because it was generated by a tourist sharing their experiences along with the narrativity about the destination (Wu and Lai, 2023), allowing the viewers to feel a sense of cost and differentiation. Further, “the content of the short videos includes beautiful farming scenery, less monetary involvement”, farming activities which require less money, and the content establishes that you don’t need much finances to visit the destination. Thus, throughout the short videos, the achievable expectations built by the content created by tourists generated cost focus and differentiation focus.

Also, the result indicated that cost focus has a positive significant impact on intention to visit the destination. This finding is in line with Komarac and Ozretić Došen (2023) study that when tourists capture cost-effective experiences in their short videos, it attracts budget-conscious traveller intentions to visit the destination. However, differentiation focus does not significantly lead to intention to visit, which is not in line with Yin et al.’s (2023) study which opined that destination distinctiveness significantly influences electronic word-of-mouth and destination image. One possible reason for this result may lie in the nature of the video content. Specifically, the narratives in the videos tended to emphasise comparative appeals rather than showcasing the distinctive features of the destinations. As a result, viewers may not have clearly perceived the elements of differentiation, reducing its influence on their intention to visit. This interpretation is supported by the descriptive statistics, where differentiation focus recorded the lowest mean score (M = 2.443) among the constructs. In all, viewers who find the short video to be economical and cost-conscious appear to get more enthusiastic about visiting the captured destinations.

Moreover, the research findings indicated that “parasocial interaction moderates (i.e. strengthens) the effect of cost and differentiation on intention to visit the destinations”. This is consistent with literature that established “parasocial interaction moderates the relationship between awe and enjoyment on attitude toward the short video” (Wu and Lai, 2023). Further, the result supports the empirical justification (Jin et al., 2021) that “parasocial interaction moderates the effect of promotional messages on perceived brand trustworthiness”. Thus, the existence of parasocial interaction between the viewers and the tourist who generated the short video positively strengthens the relationship between cost focus and differentiation focus on intention to visit the destinations in this study.

First, this study adds to the body of research on travel and tourism marketing by complementing the narrative transportation theory (Green and Brock, 2000) with Porter’s framework (Porter, 1980) to create a conceptually tested model (see Figure 2) for analysing the impact tourist-generated short videos influencing cost and differentiation focus, on intention to visit. The literature revealed that user-generated content is important in destination decision-making (Bai et al., 2023). However, viewers expecting to receive information about cost and differentiation have been relatively ignored in travel and tourism short videos. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is among the scanty research within the Ghanaian context to demonstrate that cost focus is a unique response to tourist-generated content of short destination videos. By “demonstrating the effect of cost and differentiation, this study provides a more comprehensive understanding of destination short video narratives” influencing Porter’s framework (cost and differentiation), and intention to visit.

Second, “although destination short videos have attracted increasing research interests, research on the tourist-generated short videos is limited” (Cheung et al., 2022; Nguyen et al., 2023). The studies on short videos focus on the sense of empowerment (Wang and Han, 2022), content structure (Wang et al., 2023b) and narrative transportation and narrative structure (Cao et al., 2021). However, existing research ignores the influence of short video narrative on cost and differentiation. Cost and differentiation are core aspects when discussing destination decision-making, but are not well documented within short videos. We delineated how short videos influence cost focus and differentiation focus. The results indicated that viewers are more sensitive to cost information within the lens of the short videos than differentiation focus. Our study therefore enriches destination short video literature.

Third, we further observed a moderating role of parasocial interaction. Many scholars (Lu et al., 2023; Kim, 2020; Ko, 2023; Sokolova and Perez, 2021) have identified parasocial interaction as a key factor in enhancing or influencing attitude toward short videos. Far less is known about how parasocial interaction of viewers and tourist-generated short videos moderates the relationship between cost and differentiation on intention to visit. This study leverages an empirical approach to bridge this gap. As per established empirical study “parasocial interaction strengthens the relationship between awe and attitude toward the short video” (Wu and Lai, 2023). Thus, the interaction between the celebrity and the audience shapes the relationship. This interaction can affect viewers’ sense of decision as well. In watching the short videos, one might not have a full grasp of the information being communicated by the tourist, but this sense of interaction will probably expand and clarify information that might not be clear. Therefore, this study supports the idea that parasocial interaction between viewers and the tourists who created the short videos strengthens the relationship between cost and differentiation focus on the intention to visit.

This research offers several implications for destination managers/marketers. Practitioners should be cognisant of how tourist-generated short videos inform viewers about cost and differentiation. Short video narratives influence both cost focus and differentiation focus in this study. Specifically, cost focus leads to an increased intention to visit the destination, while differentiation focus has the opposite effect. This suggests that tourists may be more motivated by affordability and accessibility than uniqueness alone. Hence, destination managers and marketers should adjust their strategies accordingly and collaborate with tourists to encourage the creation and sharing of compelling, relatable stories on social media about horti-tourism. Such user-generated content can enhance the value of the destination and attract a broader potential tourist base. Thus, horti-tourism destinations could highlight strategic activities emphasising the cost-effectiveness for tourists. This includes free or low-cost events, natural attractions, or cultivation activities that do not require a significant financial commitment at the destinations.

However, destination managers and marketers should incorporate ethical considerations when targeting price-sensitive travellers. It is important that marketing messages remain responsible and transparent, avoiding the over-promotion of affordability in a way that could lead to unrealistic expectations or the undervaluing of local culture and labour. For example, promoting low-cost travel should not obscure the importance of sustainable tourism practices, fair compensation for local service providers, or the preservation of natural and cultural resources. Responsible messaging should balance the appeal of affordability with respect for the destination’s value, integrity and long-term viability. Managers should consider ethical approaches that frame budget-friendly travel as both accessible and mutually beneficial for tourists and host communities.

Probably, the insignificant impact of differentiation could be attributed to a lack of involvement of the destination in the content creation. Hence, destination managers and marketers can explore the potential of partnering with tourists to create videos, with the goal of deriving significant advantages. This collaboration may entail educating tourists and providing additional data services at the destination, thereby enabling them to effectively convey the uniqueness and distinctiveness of the destination. Strategically, destination managers/marketers could actively monitor the tourist social media platforms for feedback, especially regarding uniqueness/distinctiveness. Address any concerns or negative feedback promptly, demonstrating commitment to providing a value-driven and enjoyable experience.

Finally, the present study verified that parasocial interaction moderates the relationship between cost and differentiation on intention to visit. Therefore, destination managers/marketers could employ the services of tourists who have experienced and have some appreciable following to serve as ambassadors or influencers of the destinations. Largely, this can enhance the interactions between the tourist and the viewers. The selection of the tourists as influencers can be guided by these criteria. A demonstrated authentic connection to the destination (e.g. previous visits or personal stories); an engaged following on relevant social media platforms; content that aligns with the destinations branding and values; the ability to produce high-quality, relatable content that reflects the experiences of typical travellers.

Once identified, destination marketers could co-create content with these ambassadors that emphasises both the affordability and uniqueness of the destination in a way that feels personal and trustworthy. This might include behind-the-scenes travel tips, cost-saving hacks or showcasing lesser-known attractions, all through the lens of the tourist’s authentic experience. In addition, marketers can implement ambassador programmes with training, incentives or tiered engagement levels (e.g. micro-influencers vs macro-influencers) to maintain alignment with strategic messaging and ethical storytelling. By operationalising the ambassador collaboration process in this way, destination marketing efforts can be more targeted, impactful and sustainable, while leveraging parasocial dynamics to build deeper audience trust and interest.

Some limitations of this research should be acknowledged. First, the study used only two short videos featuring horti-tourism destinations. While this helped control for content variability, it also introduces a potential design bias. Showing all participants the same videos may have inflated internal consistency, potentially limiting the generalisability of the findings. Future studies could incorporate a wider variety of videos across different themes or destinations to enhance external validity and assess content-driven variation. Second, although the study focused on TikTok as a platform, it did not account for platform-specific effects, such as TikTok’s algorithm prioritising entertainment, humour or trending formats. These characteristics may influence how parasocial interactions form and how cost or differentiation messages are perceived. Future research should consider how platform dynamics affect user engagement and message reception. Third, expanding the demographic profile of participants could offer more comprehensive insights into how different groups respond to parasocial interaction and intention to visit. Furthermore, the demographic characteristics can be used in future studies as confounding variables or controls. In addition, the personality traits of the tourist-influencers featured in the videos could be explored, as these may shape viewer perceptions and the strength of parasocial connections. Finally, while parasocial interaction was examined in the context of Porter’s framework and intention to visit, future studies could assess it through the lens of narrative structure in short video content, potentially uncovering deeper psychological and emotional drivers of engagement.

Funding: Partial grant support was received from the CCNY BANGA-Africa Project, University of Ghana (UG).