Bridge management in the UK: challenges, risks and global comparisons Open Access

The structural performance and integrity of road bridges are essential for the safety, functionality and resilience of national and international transportation systems (Torti et al., 2022). As critical components of infrastructure networks, bridges facilitate economic activity, ensure mobility and contribute to societal development. However, recent assessments have raised significant concerns about the condition of many existing bridges, particularly in the UK. For instance, a report by Topham (2022), published in The Guardian, revealed that over 3,200 road bridges in the UK are structurally deficient, with more than 100 assessed as incapable of safely supporting standard freight transport loads. This presents a pressing challenge for national infrastructure management. The gravity of the issue is underscored by records indicating 17 complete and 37 partial bridge collapses within a single year, suggesting a growing threat to transportation safety. Compounding this is the economic dimension: the estimated cost to address these structural issues exceeds £1.2bn. However, the current budgetary provisions are significantly inadequate, likely enabling only partial remediation over the next five years (Sasidharan et al., 2022). This funding gap highlights the need for alternative strategies and more effective allocation of limited resources (Liu et al., 2022).

Failures in bridge infrastructure carry profound economic and societal consequences, ranging from disruptions in transport to reduced productivity and increased public expenditure. Comparative analyses between preventive maintenance and emergency repair strategies consistently demonstrate the superior efficiency and cost-effectiveness of planned maintenance approaches (Mondoro and Frangopol, 2018). Proactive asset management through regular inspections, minor rehabilitations and structural enhancements has been shown to significantly extend the operational lifespan of bridges while minimising lifecycle costs (Qi et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022; Poli et al., 2024). For example, the U.S. Federal Highway Administration estimates that each dollar invested in preventive bridge maintenance can yield savings of $4–$10 by avoiding severe degradation and the need for major repairs (Fonseca-Sarmiento et al., 2022). In addition, strategic maintenance helps reduce economic disruptions associated with road closures and traffic congestion (Mohammadi et al., 2022).

Conversely, unplanned maintenance and emergency repairs tend to incur higher costs due to urgent procurement needs, short-notice contractor mobilisation and more intensive repair scopes (Hadlos et al., 2024). The ongoing closure of Hammersmith Bridge in London since 2019 and the detour required around Park Bridge in Aberdeenshire illustrate the substantial economic and social implications of delayed infrastructure rehabilitation (Vickers, 2025). These interruptions increase travel times, escalate fuel consumption and disrupt local commerce and community access, ultimately affecting regional economic output (Torti et al., 2022). On the international stage, notable incidents such as the collapses of the Fern Hollow Bridge (2022) in the USA and the I-35W Bridge (2007) highlight the magnitude of both direct reconstruction expenses and broader economic fallout (Schooling et al., 2023). The emergency replacement of the I-35W Bridge alone exceeded $234m, excluding associated economic losses (Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, 2022). Preventive strategies, therefore, not only enhance public safety but also contribute to long-term financial sustainability (Elseknidy et al., 2025).

Bridges face threats from both environmental and human-induced factors. Natural hazards including floods, seismic activity and landslides combine with anthropogenic risks such as design flaws, overloading and deferred maintenance to compromise bridge integrity (Roy and Matsagar, 2023; Galvão et al., 2021). High-profile failures such as the Morandi Bridge collapse in Italy (2018) and the Randklev railway bridge collapse in Norway (2023) underscore the importance of timely interventions. Investigations into these incidents revealed long-standing structural vulnerabilities that had not been adequately addressed (Cusumano et al., 2022; Johnson, 2023a). The Randklev collapse, for example, was triggered by extreme flooding that undermined the foundation of a key support pillar (Johnson, 2023a, 2023b). These catastrophic events highlight the compounded risks of ageing infrastructure and climate variability, emphasising the need for rigorous inspection regimes and forward-looking infrastructure planning (Vickers, 2025).

Climate change is significantly escalating the risks to bridge infrastructure by increasing the frequency and severity of extreme weather events. Flooding, scour and prolonged heatwaves are particularly critical, as highlighted in the UK Government’s Climate Change Risk Assessment (UK Government, 2022). Historical data show a concerning rise in flood-related railway bridge collapses, underscoring the vulnerability of ageing infrastructure to evolving climatic stressors (Kosič et al., 2023). Moreover, global climate models project even more intense and frequent events in the coming decades, which will further heighten the risks facing critical infrastructure (Nasr et al., 2021). These projections necessitate the urgent integration of climate-resilient strategies into bridge management to ensure long-term safety, reliability and adaptability. In developing countries, the challenges are compounded by limited financial resources that hinder regular maintenance and timely upgrades, thereby accelerating structural deterioration and increasing the likelihood of failures (Kopiika et al., 2025a). Resource constraints also limit access to advanced monitoring technologies and the development of a skilled workforce, further undermining infrastructure sustainability (Muhaimin et al., 2021). In addition, harsh climate conditions, such as intense monsoons, high humidity or temperature fluctuations, exacerbate material degradation, while weak regulatory frameworks and insufficient disaster preparedness create further vulnerabilities (Wang et al., 2024).

In high-income nations, while financial and technical capacities are generally more robust, the challenges remain substantial. Much of the bridge infrastructure in Europe and North America was constructed several decades ago and now requires extensive rehabilitation or replacement (Xu et al., 2021). Concurrently, climate change is intensifying the rate of material fatigue and damage, necessitating investment in more resilient and adaptive structural designs (Feng et al., 2024). Administrative hurdles, including regulatory complexity and bureaucratic delays, can also impede timely intervention, even when funding is available. The intersection of technical, financial, environmental and institutional challenges underscores the urgent need for holistic solutions that integrate resilience, efficiency and sustainability (Mahammedi et al., 2022; Qazi and Al-Mhdawi, 2023).

The problem is not limited to the UK. Global infrastructure reports indicate that more than 3,000 bridges in the UK are officially classified as substandard, while over 35,000 small bridges in the USA require urgent remediation (Sky News, 2022). The challenges vary between countries, historical bridges in the UK demand careful retrofitting that respects heritage value, whereas rapidly industrialising countries face pressures from fast-paced construction, technological adoption and regulatory development (Wilkie and Dyer, 2022). A global response, grounded in shared knowledge and innovation in materials, engineering methods and management practices, is essential for improving bridge resilience (Muhaimin et al., 2021). Recent research on sustainable construction materials such as geopolymer concrete (GPC) illustrates this potential. GPC, which offers reduced carbon emissions and enhanced durability compared to conventional Portland cement, has emerged as a promising alternative for bridge applications. Rubberised geopolymer concrete (Ru-GPC) in particular shows promise for components exposed to harsh environments, offering improved mechanical performance and lifecycle cost savings (Ahmed et al., 2022; Qaidi et al., 2022).

Despite the extensive literature on bridge risk factors and maintenance strategies, limited research offers a comprehensive and comparative view of management challenges in both the UK and other global contexts. Much of the existing work is geographically constrained or technically focused, lacking an integrative approach that accounts for sustainability, policy and resilience. This paper addresses that research gap by providing a comparative analysis of bridge management strategies within the UK and internationally, while exploring the role of innovative materials such as GPC in enabling more sustainable and resilient infrastructure solutions.

This study provides a novel and integrated perspective on bridge infrastructure management by comparing the challenges and practices in the UK with those in other global regions. Unlike previous studies that focus predominantly on specific technical issues or single-country case studies (Frangopol and Liu, 2019; Muhaimin et al., 2021), this research takes a holistic view that encompasses structural, environmental, policy and financial dimensions. It also introduces the emerging role of sustainable materials GPC as a viable solution for enhancing durability and reducing lifecycle costs (Ahmed et al., 2022; Qaidi et al., 2022). The incorporation of GPC into strategic planning for bridge maintenance and design offers new insights into sustainable infrastructure management. This integrated and forward-looking approach distinguishes the paper and contributes actionable knowledge for improving bridge resilience under constrained resources and evolving climate conditions (Liu et al., 2022).

This research aims to develop a comprehensive understanding of bridge management challenges, comparing UK-specific issues with those encountered globally and identifying strategies to enhance sustainability and resilience in bridge infrastructure. The following objectives guide this study:

• to systematically review and analyse existing literature on bridge management challenges at both global and UK-specific levels;

• to identify and categorise natural and human-induced factors affecting bridge asset management;

• to compare the UK’s challenges with those in other countries, identifying context-specific drivers;

• to provide recommendations for improving resilience, resource allocation and policy direction; and

• to identify underexplored research areas, particularly relating to sustainable materials and funding mechanisms.

This research adopted a systematic literature review for data collection and analysis, as it provides a comprehensive and structured approach to identifying, evaluating and synthesising relevant studies on the topic. This method is widely used for identifying key risks and challenges in engineering and construction management research (see, e.g. Al-Mhdawi et al., 2022; Al-Mhdawi et al., 2024; Mahammedi et al., 2024; Al-Mhdawi et al., 2025; Mohamed et al., 2025, among others). The investigative procedures used in this study (see Figure 1), inspired by the methodology outlined by Mahammedi et al. (2020), follow a systematic and structured approach to analysing bridge management challenges, with a particular focus on the UK while incorporating global insights. The methodology consists of five key stages:

1. defining the research strategy and establishing selection criteria to ensure a comprehensive and focused review of relevant literature;

2. identifying and selecting articles pertinent to the systematic review, emphasising their applicability to bridge management challenges in the UK and worldwide;

3. conducting a detailed analysis and discussion of the selected articles, examining key dimensions such as geographical and temporal distribution, as well as the influence of natural and human-made factors on bridge infrastructure;

4. identifying existing research gaps and proposing forward-looking recommendations to address these deficiencies, thereby strengthening bridge management strategies and informing policy decisions; and

5. synthesising the findings and presenting conclusive insights that underscore the study’s contributions to the field, offering a comprehensive understanding of bridge management challenges from both UK and global perspectives while shaping future research directions.

The search strategy was designed to ensure a systematic, comprehensive and replicable identification of relevant literature on bridge management. Key academic databases were selected based on their relevance to engineering, infrastructure and transportation research, including Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and the American Society of Civil Engineers digital library. These platforms were prioritised for their extensive coverage of peer-reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings, as well as their advanced search functionalities. A structured keyword strategy was developed, organising terms into three thematic categories (see Table 1). Boolean operators were used to refine the search: within each category, keywords were connected using “OR” to broaden results, while categories were linked using “AND” to ensure comprehensive inclusion. For example, a typical search string in Scopus included: (“Bridge” OR “Structure” OR “Assets”) AND (“Management” OR “Maintenance” OR “Assessment” OR “Operation”) AND (“Challenges” OR “Difficulties” OR “Problems” OR “Limitations” OR “Failure”). Search syntax was adapted to each database and only studies published in English from 2000 onward were considered, focusing on bridge management challenges in the UK and globally.

To ensure quality and relevance, inclusion criteria limited the review to peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers, excluding non-academic sources such as editorials, opinion pieces and book reviews, as well as articles not available in full text or unrelated to bridge management. The screening process involved two stages: title and abstract review followed by full-text evaluation. Once eligible studies were confirmed, they were subjected to a structured content review based on four analytical categories outlined in Table 2. This approach enabled a comprehensive examination of both natural and human-induced factors influencing bridge management, establishing a robust foundation for the subsequent analysis.

The search through the selected database yielded a total of 1,088 potentially relevant articles. Following a systematic selection process, 976 articles were excluded based on predefined criteria, resulting in a refined set of 112 articles for further analysis, as shown in Figure 2, which provides a comprehensive overview of the article selection process and illustrates the quantitative and qualitative steps undertaken to narrow down the initial pool to the final set for in-depth review.

The details of the articles retrieved through the PRISMA search are summarised in  Appendix 1. The data reveals that the USA (n = 33), China (n = 29), Italy (n = 16) and the UK (n = 11) were the top four contributing countries during the analysed period. Since 2014, the number of published articles has shown a general upward trend, except for 2019, which experienced a slight decline. Furthermore, as of March 2024, only three articles had been published, which explains the observed drop for that year.

This section examines the key challenges and influencing factors identified in the literature review that affect asset management in the UK. Through systematically analysing these challenges, the discussion highlights recurring issues and their broader implications for infrastructure sustainability and resilience.  Appendix 2 provides a detailed summary of these challenges, outlining the specific factors encountered by UK asset owners. Each row in the table represents a distinct case or instance, while the columns categorise challenges such as “Aging Infrastructure”, “Lack of Maintenance”, “Climate Change” and others. A checkmark (✓) indicates the presence of a particular challenge in the corresponding case. This structured representation not only enhances the understanding of the frequency and distribution of these challenges but also aids in identifying patterns, emerging trends and critical areas that require targeted interventions.

The USA contributed the highest number of articles (31), followed by China (29), Italy (16), the UK (11) and India (8), as illustrated in Figure 3. Collectively, these five countries accounted for 68% of the total publications over the past ten years.

It is widely agreed that transportation infrastructure including bridges is the core infrastructure required for economic growth as it supports manufacturing and production activities (Frangopol and Liu, 2019). The higher volume of research output from countries such as the USA, China, Italy, the UK and India may be attributed to a combination of factors, including their advanced infrastructure systems, large populations, substantial research funding and well-established academic institutions. According to The World Bank data (2022), the economies of these countries fall within the top ten most prominent globally (USA = 1st, China = 2nd, Italy = 10th, UK = 6th and India = 5th). Their economic development gives them the resources and capacity to invest in research. This same reason could be a limiting factor as to why only 27 out of 195 countries globally have contributed to research in this field in the past 10 years. Of those 27 countries, 59% have only contributed one or two articles. Less economically developed countries may struggle to contribute to the cost of research in this area. It may be prudent for future researchers to explore the asset management challenges these less economically developed countries face and compare them with the economic powerhouses identified above.

Figure 4 shows the line chart comparing the number of articles from the rest of the world with those created by or contributed to by the UK between 2014 and 2024. The global article count (blue line) shows a steady rise from 2014, peaking around 2023 before experiencing a sharp decline in 2024. In contrast, UK-related articles (orange line) remain minimal until 2016, after which they gradually increase, reaching a peak in 2023 before also dropping in 2024. The overall trend suggests increasing global research output until 2023, with the UK playing a relatively small but growing role. However, the significant drop in 2024 for both categories may indicate external disruptions such as policy changes, funding reductions, or global events affecting publication rates.

Figure 5 summarises key bridge management challenges, with hydraulic actions (e.g. scour and flooding) scoring the highest at 6, indicating their critical impact, particularly in the UK, where heavy rainfall and riverine environments are common. Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes and landslides) and ageing infrastructure both score 3, reflecting their significance but lesser frequency or urgency compared to hydraulic issues. Notably, materials deterioration (e.g. corrosion) scores 0, which is unexpected given its global recognition as a major challenge, suggesting a potential data gap or contextual anomaly. Figure 5 emphasises the need to prioritise hydraulic actions while also addressing natural disasters and ageing, though the absence of material degradation as a concern warrants further investigation.

Figure 6 presents an analysis of articles created by all other countries excluding the UK, highlighting natural factors affecting bridge asset management globally. Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes and landslides) score the highest at 36, reflecting their catastrophic impact, particularly in disaster-prone regions. Hydraulic actions (e.g. scour and flooding) follow with a score of 30, emphasising the widespread challenge of water-related issues, a leading cause of bridge failures worldwide. Materials deterioration (e.g. corrosion) scores 20, indicating its significance as a persistent but more manageable issue, while ageing scores the lowest at 13, suggesting it is a gradual challenge often addressed through maintenance programmes. The data underscores the need to prioritise mitigating high-impact natural disasters and hydraulic actions while continuing to address material degradation and ageing infrastructure.

The next sections examine key natural factors that influence bridge asset management. While grouped under the broad category of natural factors, natural disasters, hydraulic actions, material deterioration and ageing each present distinct challenges with varying impacts on infrastructure. To provide a more focused analysis, they are discussed separately in the following subsections.

The review highlights a notable disparity in research attention given to natural factors affecting bridge asset management in the UK compared to the rest of the world. In the UK, only three articles were identified on this topic, suggesting that it has not been a major focus of study. This may be attributed to the moderate climate of the country, which experiences fewer extreme weather events (Collings, 2025). In addition, the UK has well-established bridge maintenance and inspection protocols, which likely mitigate natural challenges and reduce the urgency for extensive research (Chen, 2017). However, some natural factors still pose risks to UK bridges. Flooding and heavy rainfall can weaken foundations and increase the likelihood of structural failures (Xiong et al., 2023). Furthermore, coastal erosion remains a concern for bridges near the sea, as exposure to saltwater and strong winds can accelerate corrosion and structural degradation (Xu et al., 2022).

Conversely, research on natural factors affecting bridge asset management globally is significantly more extensive, with 36 articles discussing these issues. This discrepancy highlights the greater diversity and severity of natural threats faced by bridges worldwide (Wilkie and Dyer, 2022). Countries that experience extreme weather conditions, such as earthquakes and heavy snowfall, require extensive research to mitigate these risks (Naser, 2021). Seismic activity is a critical concern in regions like Japan, California (USA) and Turkey, where earthquakes can lead to catastrophic bridge failures (Zhang et al., 2024). Coastal regions, particularly in Southeast Asia and the Caribbean, frequently endure hurricanes and typhoons, bringing strong winds and flooding that threaten bridge stability (Xu et al., 2022). In addition, desert regions experience extreme temperature fluctuations, causing material expansion and contraction, which increases the risk of cracking and long-term deterioration (Granata et al., 2023). In mountainous regions such as the Himalayas and the Andes, landslides and soil erosion pose significant threats to bridge foundations and overall structural integrity (Chatterjee et al., 2024).

The results of this systematic review, shows that hydraulic actions are the UK’s most researched natural factor. Dawson et al. (2018) explained that by 2080, 1 in 20 bridges in the UK will be at high risk of catastrophic failure due to an increased scour risk brought on by climate change. The systematic review also highlighted that this natural factor is the second most researched globally, suggesting it is a worldwide issue. This is further supported by previous studies which have highlighted scour as a global concern (Maroni et al., 2022; Scozzese et al., 2023; Kosič et al., 2023). Despite efforts to reduce the effects of climate change, these challenges continue to impact infrastructure globally. To address these challenges, several mitigation strategies can be implemented in the UK’s bridge management. Adopting advanced hydrological modelling and risk assessment tools, such as HEC-RAS, will help predict flood events and assess scour risks more accurately. Strengthening bridge foundations with scour protection methods like rock armouring, sheet piling, or gravel infiltration barriers can reduce vulnerability to hydraulic forces (Ahamed et al., 2021). Regular inspections and real-time monitoring systems such as geotechnical sensors, drones and advanced data acquisition tools will enhance long-term resilience. Emerging techniques like Digital Image Correlation, Artificial Intelligence, Deep Learning and InSAR imaging enable rapid, automated inspections and damage detection, even in hard-to-access locations, significantly improving the effectiveness of maintenance strategies (Kopiika and Blikharskyy, 2024; Rakoczy et al., 2024; Kopiika et al., 2025b). Managing sediment and debris accumulation through automated systems and debris screens will prevent blockages and further erosion (Wilson et al., 2014). Collaborative efforts between engineers, hydrologists and local authorities will improve the overall management of hydraulic actions, while developing emergency protocols for post-flood damage assessment and rapid repairs will ensure bridges are restored to service quickly. Implementing these strategies will mitigate the impacts of hydraulic actions, ensuring safer and more resilient infrastructure (Tubaldi et al., 2022).

Material deterioration, particularly corrosion, is widely recognised as a major challenge in bridge management worldwide (Crespi et al., 2022). However, an unexpected finding from this systematic review is that in the UK, material deterioration is not identified as a significant issue, suggesting either a data gap or a contextual anomaly. This contrasts sharply with the global perspective, where material deterioration is acknowledged as a persistent but manageable challenge (Mondoro et al., 2017; Frangopol and Liu, 2019). The limit of UK-specific studies on corrosion may indicate a strong focus on preventive maintenance, protective coatings or advanced material technologies that mitigate its impact (Saylan and Seçer, 2024). Alternatively, it could point to an underrepresentation of long-term degradation challenges in UK bridge management research. Globally, corrosion remains a pressing issue, particularly in regions with extreme weather conditions, high humidity and exposure to saltwater (Menga et al., 2023). The discrepancy between UK and global findings underscores the need for further investigation into the true extent of material deterioration in UK bridges and whether current strategies are effectively mitigating long-term risks.

The results of a systematic review suggest that ageing infrastructure, including bridges, remains an under-researched topic. In the UK, it ranks second last among researched natural factors and last globally. A deeper analysis in Figure 7 shows that the number of academic articles produced on ageing structures has remained stagnant, averaging just over one article per year, despite the rising average age of structures. This lack of research is concerning as the challenge of maintaining ageing bridges in the UK becomes increasingly urgent (Wu et al., 2021). A significant number of bridges are reaching the end of their service life a phenomenon often referred to as the “asset time bomb” (Medina et al., 2023). In the UK alone, thousands of bridges are classified as substandard, with many unable to support the weight of modern vehicles (Georgantzia and Kashani, 2025). Recent report by Topham (2022) indicates that over 3,211 bridges require significant maintenance or weight restrictions, posing risks to transport networks and economic efficiency. Meanwhile, infrastructure investment remains sluggish, with the UK’s net stock of market sector infrastructure reaching £350.2bn in 2023 an increase of just 0.3% from the previous year. In addition, an estimated £700bn infrastructure spending shortfall looms by 2040, with £1.6tn worth of capital projects currently unfunded [Office for National Statistics (ONS), 2024].

The human factors impacting bridge asset management in the UK, extracted from a systematic review, are presented in Figure 8. The data reflect the frequency of these factors affecting bridges, providing insight into key concerns and gaps. Climate change (five articles) emerges as the most significant challenge, highlighting the need for resilience against environmental impacts such as flooding and temperature fluctuations. Although climate change is classified here as a human-induced factor due to its anthropogenic causes, its effects also contribute to natural deterioration processes such as material degradation, ageing and increased flood risk underscoring the interconnected nature of these challenges. Increased loading (two articles) indicates that rising traffic demands may be placing excessive stress on bridge structures. Limited information on assets (one article) suggests gaps in data management that could hinder proactive maintenance. Interestingly, factors like lack of maintenance, design errors, funding and skills shortage and blast loading were not reported as major concerns, implying either effective current management practices or potential underreporting.

Figure 9 presents human factors impacting bridge asset management in the rest of the world, extracted from a systematic review. The data highlights the frequency of these factors, offering insight into global bridge management challenges. Increased loading (11 articles) is the most significant issue, suggesting that rising traffic demands and heavier vehicles are putting substantial stress on bridge structures worldwide. Climate change and lack of maintenance (six articles) also pose major concerns, emphasising the impact of extreme weather conditions and insufficient upkeep on bridge durability. Errors in design or maintenance (four articles) and funding and skills shortage (three articles) indicate that structural flaws and external forces are contributing to bridge vulnerabilities. Interestingly, limited information on assets was not reported as a concern, implying that asset tracking and data management may be more developed globally compared to the UK. Blast loading (one article) appears to be a minor but notable factor. However, the ongoing rise in global conflicts and terrorist threats highlights its growing relevance. As such, blast impacts on bridge infrastructure should be considered an emerging risk, warranting further investigation in future studies (Kopiika et al., 2025c).

Bridge management challenges vary between the UK and the rest of the world, highlighting differing priorities and vulnerabilities. The results of the systematic review showed that climate change, while human-induced, significantly influences deterioration patterns, ageing and natural hazards, thereby affecting structural performance globally, an observation also supported by recent findings from Kopiika et al. (2025a). Climate change refers to the long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns due to human activity, including fossil fuel consumption and deforestation (Shivanna, 2022). It was the UK’s most researched human-made factor and the rest of the world’s second most. While climate change and human contribution to it are widely reported, the consequences of changing temperature and weather patterns pose the greatest risks to infrastructure rather than climate change itself. These consequences include an increased risk of scour and flooding, which can accelerate material degradation, undermine bridge foundations and shorten the lifespan of critical structures (Kosič et al., 2023). The impact of scour and flooding was identified as the UK’s most researched natural factor and the second most in the rest of the world, reinforcing the correlation between climate change and structural vulnerabilities.

Interestingly, while the UK focuses on climate resilience, other global regions face additional challenges such as lack of maintenance and errors in design or maintenance, highlighting broader structural and operational deficiencies (Barrelas et al., 2021). Many countries struggle with inadequate funding, skill shortages and outdated infrastructure, which increase the risk of structural failures (Muhaimin et al., 2021; Georgantzia and Kashani, 2025). In contrast, the UK’s regulatory frameworks and maintenance strategies may have mitigated these issues, as factors such as blast loading, design errors and maintenance deficiencies were not identified as major concerns. However, on a global scale, blast loading remains a minor but existing risk, particularly in regions with security threats or exposure to extreme external forces.

Given the inevitability of climate change, research and engineering efforts should be directed towards protecting structures from its consequences. This includes the implementation of adaptive design strategies, predictive maintenance technologies and sustainable infrastructure investments (Mahammedi et al., 2025). In the UK, this means strengthening flood-resistant foundations, improving drainage systems and deploying real-time monitoring technologies to assess vulnerabilities. Globally, more significant efforts are required to address fundamental maintenance and design challenges, ensuring long-term bridge performance and safety. Without proactive measures, the increasing frequency and intensity of climate-driven challenges will continue to pose a serious threat to bridge infrastructure worldwide.

Studies have shown that as vehicle weight and traffic volume increase, the structural integrity of bridges is progressively compromised (Mendoza-Lugo et al., 2019). For instance, Pittala et al. (2023) highlighted a significant increase in average vehicle weight, which contributes to accelerated wear and tear on bridge structures. Furthermore, a study by Chen et al. (2021) reports a growing population and urbanisation trends, both of which drive higher traffic volumes, leading to increased loading on transportation networks. This, in turn, exacerbates the deterioration of bridges, particularly those that were not originally designed to withstand modern vehicle loads. In addition, Yang and Frangopol (2020) emphasised that the growth in traffic loading, driven by socio-economic development, significantly impacts bridge condition, accelerating the need for maintenance and repairs. A study published in Infrastructures developed a stochastic traffic load model using Weigh-In-Motion measurements, finding that annual increases in traffic load significantly impact fatigue damage in steel bridges (Shi et al., 2023). Research in the Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems highlighted that heavy-duty vehicles contribute to accelerated wear and tear of bridges, emphasising the need for appropriate load limits to mitigate deterioration (Kim et al., 2022). These studies collectively demonstrate that increased traffic loads, particularly from heavy-duty vehicles, significantly contribute to bridge degradation, providing stronger empirical support for the argument in the manuscript.

Despite the recognition of skills shortages as a critical challenge in infrastructure and bridge management, there is a limited academic focus on this issue. Industry reports and operational-level solutions address the problem, but scholarly research lags, hindering the development of evidence-based solutions. This disconnect restricts efforts to understand the long-term impact of skills shortages on asset management and safety, preventing targeted educational initiatives. Given the increasing pressures on the infrastructure sector, further research is essential to develop strategies for addressing skills shortages and ensuring long-term sustainability in bridge management. Similarly, while funding and skills shortages were identified as factors affecting bridge asset management in the UK during a review of previous literature, they were not included in the systematic review. Global studies have cited a lack of maintenance due to limited cost and resourcing as a constraint (Dorin et al., 2017; Qi et al., 2020; Yang and Frangopol, 2020), but the number of articles on this subject remains relatively low compared to other factors. The exact reasons why the UK has not fully explored funding and skills shortages are unclear, but factors such as the complexity of infrastructure funding and the large number of asset owners in the UK likely contribute to this gap. The multitude of factors affecting the deterioration of structures further complicates the identification of funding streams, making it a challenging area for researchers to address comprehensively.

This research provides a comprehensive analysis of bridge management challenges, contributing to the academic discourse on infrastructure resilience. By identifying key factors such as hydraulic actions, ageing infrastructure and climate change, the study offers valuable insights into the complexities of bridge management, especially in the UK. Theoretically, it enhances existing frameworks on asset management by integrating a comparative analysis of the distinct challenges faced by the UK and other global regions. The global comparison not only deepens the understanding of regional variations but also introduces a novel lens through which best practices in infrastructure management can be evaluated and adapted to local contexts (Mitoulis et al., 2022; Pregnolato, 2019).

The study emphasises the significance of natural and human-made factors, such as increased loading, skills shortages and funding constraints, in shaping bridge management strategies. This theoretical foundation underscores the interplay between technical challenges, resource allocation and long-term sustainability. The methodological approach, rooted in a systematic literature review, serves as a replicable framework for examining infrastructure management challenges in other sectors, thus extending its applicability beyond bridge management (Muhaimin et al., 2021). The identification of underexplored challenges, such as ageing infrastructure and the complexities of funding and skills shortages, paves the way for future research to develop more comprehensive and adaptive models for infrastructure resilience.

For policymakers and infrastructure managers, the findings of this study provide actionable recommendations for improving bridge asset management. The identification of hydraulic actions and ageing infrastructure as critical challenges in the UK underscores the urgent need for targeted investments in maintenance and upgrades. Policymakers can leverage these insights to prioritise funding allocations and ensure resources are directed towards the most pressing infrastructure vulnerabilities (Johnson, 2023a, 2023b). In addition, the study highlights the importance of adopting advanced monitoring technologies, such as LiDAR and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), to enhance the detection and mitigation of risks associated with climate-induced scour and flooding. The integration of these technologies, infrastructure managers can better address challenges posed by climate change and ageing infrastructure, fostering long-term resilience (Pregnolato, 2019).

On a global scale, the research advocates for enhanced international collaboration to address shared infrastructure challenges, such as the impact of climate change on bridge performance. By promoting the exchange of knowledge and technological advancements, countries with vulnerable infrastructure, like the UK, can benefit from best practices developed in regions facing similar risks (Roy and Matsagar, 2023). Such collaborations can also foster innovation in funding models and workforce development, which are essential for tackling the resource constraints that often impede effective bridge management (Hampton and Curtis, 2022).

The social Implications of these findings are profound. Poorly maintained infrastructure not only affects economic productivity but also directly impacts the quality of life of citizens. For example, incidents such as the prolonged closure of Hammersmith Bridge in London have led to increased travel time, disruption of local businesses and restricted community access, which highlights the social costs of neglecting bridge management (Johnson, 2023a). These disruptions also amplify the economic burden, as more time and resources are spent on addressing the fallout from infrastructure failures. The social consequences are further compounded by increased safety risks, as seen in the collapse of the I-35W bridge in Minneapolis, which resulted in fatalities and injuries (Schooling et al., 2023).

The study emphasises the urgent need for robust, adaptive strategies to mitigate these risks. As bridges deteriorate and the number of ageing structures increases, the potential for failure grows, leading to more frequent social disruptions. This underscores the importance of investing in resilient infrastructure that ensures continued access to transportation networks, which are critical for social connectivity, emergency response and economic activity (RAC Foundation, 2017). Enhancing infrastructure resilience can also support broader societal goals, such as promoting sustainability and reducing the vulnerability of communities to climate-induced disruptions (Kosič et al., 2023). For instance, improving bridge management practices that prioritise climate resilience can help reduce the negative impacts of flooding and scour, which disproportionately affect vulnerable communities.

This research presents a systematic review of the challenges in bridge asset management, analysing 112 articles from a pool of 1,088, with a particular focus on the UK within a global context. The study identifies key factors influencing bridge maintenance and resilience, including ageing infrastructure, climate change, funding constraints and skills shortages. The findings highlight the urgent need for adaptive management strategies, especially as increasing traffic loads and environmental risks place growing demands on bridge networks. A comparative analysis reveals that while the UK faces distinct challenges such as hydraulic risks and ageing bridges many of these issues are globally shared, highlighting the need for collaborative approaches to bridge management.

Despite extensive research, several critical gaps persist in infrastructure management. Ageing assets demand greater attention as they pose increasing challenges for asset managers worldwide. In addition, funding constraints and skills shortages require in-depth studies to quantify their impact on bridge safety and longevity. In the UK, these issues remain underexplored, further complicating infrastructure management efforts. While climate change has been widely studied for immediate threats like flooding and scour, long-term adaptation strategies and resilience measures warrant deeper investigation.

To address the identified challenges, practical interdisciplinary collaborations are crucial. These collaborations should actively integrate expertise from structural engineering, environmental science and socio-economics to foster comprehensive, multidimensional solutions. For instance, joint research projects could be initiated between engineering and environmental science departments to design climate-resilient infrastructure, while socio-economists could assess the broader socio-economic impacts of infrastructure management decisions. Comparative studies involving both high- and low-income countries will provide a broader understanding of the unique regional challenges, leading to solutions applicable globally. Strengthened international cooperation can facilitate the exchange of best practices, especially in implementing sustainability measures and building resilience. In terms of technological advancements, investment in state-of-the-art monitoring tools like LiDAR, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), and drones should be prioritised for early detection of vulnerabilities, particularly in ageing infrastructures and those exposed to climate risks. Policymakers need to align resource allocation with infrastructure vulnerabilities, embedding sustainability and resilience principles into regulatory frameworks to guide future development. Furthermore, adaptive management strategies, including predictive modelling and lifecycle assessment tools, must be integrated to proactively address evolving challenges. Finally, academia and industry should collaborate more closely to establish innovative funding mechanisms that incentivise infrastructure investment and attract skilled professionals, thus addressing the ongoing skills shortage. Through these practical implementation mechanisms, interdisciplinary collaboration can directly address the challenges facing bridge management and infrastructure resilience.