Investigating professional technical identity practices of autonomous robots in the construction industry: a social practice theory perspective

Globally, the construction sector is experiencing rapid digital transformation, making it a major driver of sustainable development and infrastructure growth (Gryech et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2024). For example, the construction industry continues to significantly contribute to the global economy with over $10tn spent annually, accounting for approximately 13% of the world’s GDP (Joshi, 2024). With a projected increase of 50% in annual spending, the construction industry will grow exponentially and involve more complex activities and resources (University, 2023). To effectively manage construction projects, autonomous robots such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones are revolutionizing the construction industry, bringing a wave of safety, accuracy and efficiency (Watson, 2022; Liang et al., 2023). UAVs have become indispensable in the construction industry because of their extensive applications, including progress monitoring and high-precision mapping. These technologies offer significant advantages, such as reduced costs and reduced onsite accidents and injuries (Akinosho et al., 2020; Akinlolu et al., 2022). Industry reports have highlighted that the construction industry will continue to implement sensing technologies, as the investment has doubled over the past decade (AutoDesk, 2020; Katy Bartlett, 2020). For example, Watson (2022) noted that the majority of large construction projects already involve UAVs at some stage in construction. UAVs have seen remarkable adoption in construction (Yıldız et al., 2021), with a growth rate of 239%, higher than any other commercial sector and are becoming increasingly advanced and safer through the integration of artificial intelligence (Yıldız et al., 2021).

From a global sustainability perspective, the increasing use of UAVs aligns with several United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including advancing Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure (SDG 9), promoting Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8) and contributing to Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11) (Gryech et al., 2024). By improving construction safety, reducing material waste and enabling smarter infrastructure monitoring, UAV technologies contribute to sustainable construction practices that minimize environmental impacts and enhance productivity (Gryech et al., 2024).

However, while these technologies are exciting and promising, the construction sector is currently facing an acute shortage of technically skilled professionals, as only technically inclined workers are often involved in implementing sensing technologies such as UAVs (Ogunseiju et al., 2021; Tomori et al., 2025). This skilled workforce shortage is projected to intensify, with the U.S. Department of Labor forecasting an 11% increase in employment demand between 2016 and 2026 (Ofori-Boadu et al., 2019). As of July 2022, there were 11.2 million job openings, but only 5.7 million unemployed workers to fill them (BLS, 2022; WeForum, 2022). Because the construction industry is a major employer of labor (AGC, 2022), the projected unemployment rate can be considered a nationwide crisis.

Therefore, as robotics continues to advance, there is a need to cultivate a workforce adept at deploying robots in the industry (Lowy, 2025). However, the professional technical identity (PTI) practices that are crucial for nurturing the future workforce’s (students) alignment with construction technologies such as autonomous robots remain unknown. While few studies have focused on understanding PTI practices for developing student professional identity, no study has examined PTI practices in the context of autonomous robots. Prior works on professional identity development (PID) have primarily focused on traditional engineering education or work-integrated learning (WIL) (Khosronejad et al., 2015; van Hattum-Janssen and Endedijk, 2020a, 2020b), often overlooking the evolving technological realities of automation and robotics in construction. For example, Khosronejad et al. (2015) applied the implied identity framework to empirical data from students’ collaborative work, comparing different aspects of practiced engineering identity. Khosronejad et al. (2016) argue that implied identity, perceived through interactions and reflections, helps in understanding professional identity practices, thereby enhancing learners’ identities. However, this gap regarding PTI practices (such as technical skills and knowledge) in advancing autonomous robots underscores the need for a deeper exploration of the necessary PTI practices that should constitute students’ professional identities (Lowy, 2025; Tomori and Ogunseiju, 2025c). As Craps et al. (2018) noted, technical proficiency is indispensable for sharpening expertise in any chosen field, as it acts as the catalyst for effective operation. Hence, the quest for expertise and the cultivation of technical skills have become pivotal aspects of student PID.

Thus, this research situates itself within a global call to prepare a technologically competent construction workforce to engage meaningfully with construction technologies. Unlike prior studies that focused solely on pedagogical identity formation, this work examines how construction professionals enact, interpret and sustain their technical identities through daily interactions with UAV technologies. Accordingly, the objectives of this study are fourfold: to identify the essential knowledge and skills as foundations of professional technical identity in UAV practice; to understand the sequence of professional practices that shape identity formation in UAV operations; and to explore the professional challenges as contexts for identity negotiation in UAV practice. Then, the study will draw implications for how these PTI practices can inform the development of students’ professional technical identity in autonomous robotics. To address these objectives, this study uses semi-structured interviews with 15 virtual design and construction (VDC) professionals who professionally identify and are passionate about UAVs. By understanding these practices, students can be equipped with the requisite technical skills needed for implementing UAVs in the field of automation and robotics. Understanding the practices emerging from this research could also assist educators in shaping a new generation of construction engineers with the requisite competencies to implement autonomous robots for advancing the construction industry, thereby contributing to quality education (SDG4).

This section aims to present and synthesize existing studies on PID, professional practice and the use of UAVs in construction engineering education to identify current gaps and research needs. The review was conducted through a search of peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers from Google Scholar databases and reports using keywords such as “professional technical identity,” “professional identity development,” “construction education,” “UAV in construction,” “drones in construction,” and “engineering practice.” Other keywords such as professional practice, sensing technologies and autonomous robots were also included. The goal was to critically evaluate how previous studies have addressed (or overlooked) the intersection between professional practice, identity development and emerging technologies.

Eliot and Turns (2011) define professional identity as “personal identification with the duties, responsibilities, and knowledge associated with a professional role.” In addition, PID can be defined as a continuous process of becoming a professional (Dehing et al., 2013a, 2013b). Also, engineering identity can be seen as the extent to which students identify themselves as engineers (Liquete et al., 2021). Research shows that degree apprenticeships and internships are central to PID, as they expose students to real professional culture while allowing them to apply technical knowledge (Colbeck, 2008; Dehing et al., 2013a, 2013b; Ju and Zhu, 2023). Through observing practitioners, learning workplace norms and reflecting on their experiences, students begin to shape their identities and try out different professional roles (Dehing, Jochems et al., 2013; Spencer et al., 2018). Studies also highlight the critical role of educators in supporting this process by setting expectations for professionalism and incorporating identity-building opportunities early in the curriculum (Trede, 2012; Wilkins, 2020).

Recent studies have approached PID from multiple perspectives within engineering education. van Hattum-Janssen and Endedijk (2020a, 2020b) used a life-history approach to investigate how 13 engineering alumni formed their professional identities and made career decisions, providing insights into the developmental pathways of engineers. Castillo et al. (2022) explored how WIL experiences influence students’ professional identity formation. Through an analysis of 25 student narratives, their research emphasized the significance of institutional support, personal networks and the obstacles encountered during WIL participation. Similarly, Young et al. (2022) conducted focus groups with students and early-career engineers to identify the main influences on identity development throughout undergraduate education. They found that engagement in authentic design projects, exposure to industry settings, peer collaboration and involvement in extracurricular activities all play pivotal roles in strengthening engineering identity. Craps et al. (2022) developed a competency-based framework emphasizing self-awareness, perseverance and creativity as key traits for engineers. Park et al. (2018) identified disciplinary skills, work experiences and peer socialization as key factors. Other studies have explored the impact of race, gender and ethnicity on professional identity; for example, Ofori-Boadu et al. (2020) and Ofori-Boadu and Ofori-Boadu (2022) highlighted gender diversity efforts, noting passion, abilities and supportive networks, along with resilience and a proactive mindset, as crucial to AEC career identity. Finally, Rodriguez et al. (2018) provided a comprehensive review of engineering identity research, emphasizing the need to expand inquiry across more diverse disciplinary and contextual boundaries.

Although the significance of PID in engineering education has been widely acknowledged, limited attention has been given to understanding the PTI practices of experts who identify with the implementation of autonomous robots. The notion of PTI captures how individuals form a sense of self-establishment in their technical expertise, competencies and accumulated professional experiences within a given domain (Moodley, 2022). PTI practices reflect how practitioners define their roles and professional responsibilities, shaping their confidence, commitment and engagement in their field (Moodley, 2022). For construction engineering students, cultivating PTI is essential for bridging academic learning with professional practice, particularly in enhancing their ability to adopt and apply sensing technologies such as UAVs effectively. Despite these valuable contributions, a considerable research gap remains concerning how PTI practices are shaped in relation to autonomous robots within construction engineering. Much of the existing work on PID relies on student and educator perspectives, often neglecting how industry professionals construct and enact their identities through day-to-day technical practices. Addressing this shortfall, the present study focuses on examining how construction professionals cultivate and express their professional identities through engagement with UAVs. The analysis investigates how these practitioners perceive, apply and adapt to such tools, thereby revealing the knowledge, skills and experiences that underpin their evolving technical identities.

In higher education, professional practice, as defined by University (2023) is the required knowledge and skills needed for a student to succeed in a practical environment. This practice is often required to be undertaken as a part of higher education programs charged with the responsibility of preparing students for their future professional endeavors (Hager, 1996; Khosronejadtoroghi, 2018). However, while several studies have focused on professional engineering practices and workplace transitioning, professional practices in robotics are underexplored. For example, Habash (2019) broadly explored several factors contributing to professional practices in engineering. These include technical skills, communication skills, reflective practice, ethics and legal aspects, leadership and innovation, entrepreneurship, safety and sustainability in design. These combined elements define best practices in engineering professionalism. Sheppard et al. (2007) developed a comprehensive description of engineering practice through interviews with engineering faculty, aiming to understand the relationship between how engineering is taught and practiced. Based on the review of the literature, there is still a significant gap in understanding the practices of construction industry experts using autonomous robots. This study aims to bridge this gap by identifying PTI practices that need to be incorporated into construction engineering education.

Several studies have addressed the competencies required for operating UAVs, but none have thoroughly investigated professional UAV practices within real-world construction contexts. For example, Hildebrand and Hildebrand (2021) explore drone use, emphasizing how hobbyists prioritize safety and regulations. Similarly, Schmidt et al. (2021, 2022) evaluated key competencies for drone pilots, including knowledge, flight skills, cognitive abilities, interpersonal skills and personality in drone pilots through an online questionnaire. Several studies discuss integrating drones into construction engineering curricula. For instance, Phang et al. (2021) integrate drones through a service-learning program for engineering students, enhancing their learning, sense of responsibility and international exposure. Similarly, Nwaogu et al. (2024) and Tomori and Ogunseiju (2025) assess the competencies required for construction education, recommending specialized drone training courses focused on safety and continuous professional development. Despite these contributions, most existing UAV studies have been conducted in non-construction fields such as defense and aviation and have primarily relied on surveys or literature-based analyses. Consequently, there remains a gap in understanding how construction professionals engage with UAVs in real project settings, how they develop expertise, make operational decisions and form professional practices around these technologies.

Our study builds on these prior works by emphasizing the PTI practices, such as the knowledge and skills needed, the steps taken, the implementation thought process, challenges and their solutions needed to effectively operate UAVs in construction. Through in-depth interviews with experienced practitioners, this study aims to capture the lived realities of UAV use in construction and the identity practices that underpin them.

The construction sector has experienced a remarkable surge in drone utilization, showing a 239% increase in adoption, which surpasses that of all other commercial industries (Yıldız et al., 2021). This rapid growth reflects both the sector’s openness to innovation and the continual enhancement of drone capabilities through artificial intelligence integration (Yıldız et al., 2021). Within construction operations, drones have become essential for accurate mapping, project progress tracking and data collection, offering substantial savings in time and cost (Tomori et al., 2024). Moreover, their application on job sites contributes to improved safety outcomes by helping to mitigate accident risks and injuries (Akinosho et al., 2020; Akinlolu et al., 2022), thereby supporting broader construction safety initiatives (Liu et al., 2024; Tomori and Ogunseiju, 2025c). However, even as drone technologies continue to evolve, the construction industry continues to grapple with a shortage of skilled technical professionals (van Hattum-Janssen and Endedijk, 2020a, 2020b; Ogunrinde et al., 2022). Addressing this workforce gap requires that future professionals not only develop the necessary technical competencies but also cultivate a professional mindset and interpretive skillset, the ability to think, reason and make decisions like industry experts well before entering the field.

This study uses social practice theory (SPT) to understand how PTI practices are enacted in the field of autonomous robots and how they contribute to identity development. SPT posits that identities are formed through action, over time, emerging from social experiences within cultural and historical influences (Holland and Lave, 2019; Simms and Shanahan, 2024). This aligns with Erikson’s (1994) view of identity, suggesting that identity may be influenced by interactions with others. According to Schatzki (1996) and Kemmis et al. (2017), practice is defined as a “temporally unfolding and spatially dispersed nexus of doings and sayings,” which includes practical understanding, general understanding, rules and teleo-affective structures. These elements are critical in shaping how construction engineering practices are performed and understood. Practical understanding involves knowing how to carry out desired actions through basic doings and sayings, thereby becoming a competent member of a practice (Lisewski, 2018). In the context of construction engineering, this could refer to understanding how to use autonomous robots effectively in construction tasks, from planning to analysis and then to the presentation of results. General understanding corresponds to more abstract senses of the “worth, value, nature, or place of things” (Lisewski, 2018), such as valuing the integration of autonomous robots for their potential to improve efficiency, safety and innovation in construction projects. Rules include “explicit formulations that prescribe, require, or instruct actions to be undertaken” (Schatzki, 2005; Lisewski, 2018). This could refer to safety protocols, regulations or operational guidelines for autonomous robots. Finally, teleo-affective structures refer to a “range of acceptable beliefs to carry out project or tasks” (Schatzki, 2005; Lisewski, 2018) and focus on “how practices should be carried out and how novices are socialized into these practices.” By applying these dimensions, this study conceptualizes UAV operation not as a technical task but as a social practice that blends knowledge, tools and meaning-making. This is crucial for students as they transition from academic settings to professional environments where they apply their knowledge and skills in real-world contexts.

In this study, SPT serves as a foundational lens that informs the research questions, study design and data interpretation. It guides the exploration of what professionals do, the tools they use and the meanings they attach to their actions when implementing UAVs. SPT also underscores the role of discourse and participation in facilitating identity development by providing a space for individuals to “author” their identities. This process of authoring involves performing identity-related actions in front of others, seeking recognition and validation (Johnson et al., 2011; Lisewski, 2018). In this study, we examine how construction professionals make decisions, act and account for their actions while using autonomous robots in their daily operations. Both dimensions of identity, as conceptualized in this manner, are captured in how individuals struggle and adapt to live out meaningful practices (Holland and Lave, 2019; Mateer et al., 2021).

SPT further guided the data collection and analytic process in this study by providing the key tenets (practical understanding, general understanding, rules and teleo-affective structures) on which the coding framework was established. The interview questions were intentionally formulated to understand how professionals engage in authentic actions (e.g. skills needed, UAV deployment preparation, regulatory guidelines and checklists); use material resources (e.g. software, tools and technologies used such as drawing plans, maps, DroneDeploy, Pix4D, drones and controllers); and attach meaning to these actions (e.g. challenges encountered and solutions proffered, prioritizing safety). Interview data were analyzed through this lens to identify how professional identity emerges through repeated engagement with UAV technologies. Please see Figure 1 for how SPT serves as a theoretical foundation for identity-informed PTI in UAV.

Educators can incorporate practical experiences with UAVs into the curriculum, enabling students to develop practical understanding and technical skills essential for their future careers. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the practical knowledge and technical skills involved in the implementation of UAVs. The participants in this study are experienced construction professionals who identify with the use of autonomous robots. By understanding their professional practices, construction engineering students can observe how expertise is enacted, valued and communicated to develop a stronger sense of self throughout their education, fostering interest and competence in the use of UAVs in their future careers. Hence, this study seeks to provide answers to the main research question: What are the professional technical identity practices related to the implementation of UAVs in the construction industry?

Despite the growing body of research on PID and the integration of emerging technologies in engineering education, significant gaps persist. First, existing studies have largely emphasized PID from the perspective of students and educators (van Hattum-Janssen and Endedijk, 2020a, 2020b; Castillo et al., 2022; Young et al., 2022), with limited attention to how industry professionals construct, enact and sustain their professional technical identities through the implementation of autonomous robots. Second, while prior studies have outlined the technical considerations related to UAV operation (Yıldızel and Çalış, 2019; Schmidt et al., 2022), only a few have examined how professionals actually use UAVs within dynamic and complex environments such as construction sites. Most existing research remains limited to hobbyist, aviation or defense contexts or relies on survey or literature-based methodologies that overlook the situated, experiential aspects of UAV practice. To address these gaps, this study seeks to identify and analyze the PTI practices exhibited by construction professionals who implement UAVs in their projects. Hence, the study objectives, aligned with the research questions, are as follows:

The study (Figure 2) adopts a qualitative research method to explore the practices of construction professionals when implementing UAVs on the job sites. A qualitative research design was adopted because it captures the richness of participants’ experiences that quantitative methods may not fully reveal (Hammarberg et al., 2016). Qualitative methods are used to answer questions about “how” and “why” in relation to participants’ lived experiences, meaning and actions (IxDF, 2017). Similar studies, exploring professional identity, such as Brand (2020) and Khosronejad et al. (2015), have adopted this research method effectively. The study used a two-phase data collection process: a pre-interview demography survey, and semi-structured interviews. The demographic survey was used to ensure that only participants with adequate experience, knowledge and passion for UAV implementation were selected for the interviews. For the semi-structured interview, the researchers used open-ended questions (see Table 2) to gain more in-depth insights into participants’ experiences as they expressed their thoughts and experiences in their own words. The semi-structured format ensures that key areas of interest are covered while providing the flexibility to probe further based on participants’ responses (IxDF, 2017). Figure 2 shows the methodology overview. For reference, the acronyms and abbreviations used throughout this study are listed in Table A1 of the  Appendix.

This study uses purposive and snowball sampling methods to recruit 15 (n = 15) construction industry practitioners with specialized expertise in virtual design and construction (VDC) who regularly use UAVs. Purposive sampling was adopted to recruit construction industry professionals who typically implement and identify with sensing technologies such as UAVs in the construction industry. Purposive sampling was used to intentionally select participants with relevant years of experience using UAVs in construction projects (Etikan et al., 2016; Tsindos, 2023). While snowball sampling relies on existing participants to refer new participants with relevant years of experience, thus creating a chain reaction to reach individuals who might be difficult to find otherwise (Tsindos, 2023; Nyimbili and Nyimbili, 2024). This focus on VDC was intentional, as VDC professionals represent a subgroup of construction practitioners who regularly engage with emerging VDC technologies such as UAVs in construction projects (Gustafsson et al., 2015). The sample size of 15 participants was justified based on Mason (2010), who suggested that a sample size of 15 is acceptable for all qualitative research, as it is generally sufficient to reach data saturation, where no new themes or insights emerge from additional participants (Bertaux, 1981; Mason, 2010). Relevant studies in construction education have also used a similar sample size (Mohammadi et al., 2019; Hansen, 2021). The study was conducted in the USA, with participants drawn from various construction companies operating across multiple states. However, all in-person interviews took place in the state of Georgia.

All the participants had either a bachelor’s or technical degree and were currently employed in the VDC sector. 40% of the participants are in the age range of 35–44 years. The racial and ethnic composition of the sample shows a predominance of White, non-Hispanic individuals, accounting for 86.7% of the participants. The participants are predominantly employed in large-sized companies (66.7%), which may offer more resources and opportunities for implementing advanced technologies (Table 1 provides a summary of participant demographics). Regarding industry experience, 20%, 33.3% and 33.3% of participants have 1–5 years, 6–10 years and 11–25 years of experience, respectively. Notably, all participants demonstrated a strong interest and passion for UAVs, reflecting their enthusiasm for fostering innovation within the industry and indicating the strong reliability of the study’s findings.

Data collection was conducted in two phases. First, participants completed a brief pre-interview survey online through Qualtrics. This survey was designed to assess participants’ suitability for the study, obtain informed consent, collect demographic information (e.g. professional background, years of experience and company type) and assess participants’ passion, level of interest, knowledge, familiarity and experience with UAVs. The responses were used to screen and filter out individuals without sufficient experience or knowledge of UAV implementation, ensuring that only qualified and experienced professionals were invited for interviews. After the survey, participants scheduled their interviews via a Doodle Poll link. The semi-structured interviews were used to delve deeply into the experiences and thought processes of VDC professionals actively engaged with UAVs.

The semi-structured interviews were conducted at the School of Building Construction at the Georgia Institute of Technology, providing a conducive environment for participants to share their experiences. Data collection involved audio recordings and note-taking during semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured interview protocol (Table 2) included open-ended questions focused on the skills, knowledge, reasoning, workflows, challenges and best practices and practices needed to effectively implement UAVs, with each interview lasting approximately one hour. Necessary ethical approvals were obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB), Georgia Institute of Technology (Approval Number: H234**), to ensure compliance with ethical standards.

After the completion of the tasks, the audio recordings were transcribed verbatim using Microsoft Word, and the transcripts underwent inductive thematic analysis facilitated by NVivo 14 software. Thematic analysis was adopted to interpret the data because it provides flexibility in identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns within qualitative data sets (Braun and Clarke, 2006). NVivo 14 software was used to organize, manage, code and visualize the data efficiently. NVivo enhances analytical rigor by allowing systematic organization of codes, creation of mind maps and retrieval of themes, thereby ensuring transparency and traceability in the coding process (Zamawe, 2015). The study adopted Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic analysis approach, which involved a systematic and iterative process of familiarization with the data; generating initial codes; grouping codes into themes; reviewing and refining themes; defining and naming themes; and producing final thematic maps and tables (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Data familiarization involved repeatedly reading the transcripts to grasp the content and identify initial ideas and patterns while also noting significant information relevant to the research questions. Initial codes were then generated, reviewed and grouped into potential themes, representing broader patterns in the data. Finally, tables and mind maps were generated to visually represent key themes and sub-themes and relationships identified during the analysis.

To ensure the reliability of the findings, intercoder reliability (ICR) assessments were conducted. Ten percent (10%) of the transcripts were reviewed by an independent coder, achieving an agreement level of 0.9. Codes that did not achieve a rating of one were reviewed and recorded by the researchers to further solidify the study’s credibility. Figure 2 shows the methodology overview.

The findings reveal a detailed understanding of the essential knowledge and skills that form the foundations of PTI practices in UAV implementations. The PTI practices that emerge include professional ethical reasoning; embodied technical competence and judgment; and interpretive dimensions of PTI. Table 3 categorizes and elaborates on these practices and key themes such as regulatory knowledge, operational knowledge (flight skills) and data processing expertise.

PTI practices: professional ethical reasoning. This practice embodies the regulatory knowledge for UAVs’ implementation, which includes FAA regulations, no-fly zones and drone pilot certifications (Table 3). These are further explained below.

Sub-theme 1: FAA regulations. A fundamental aspect of UAV operations in construction is understanding the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) rules and regulations. This includes knowledge of airspace restrictions, such as the different classes of airspace and the restrictions associated with each. For instance, UAVs can generally fly up to 400 feet in unrestricted airspace, but this limit decreases near airports. Understanding registration requirements is also crucial, as drones above certain weight thresholds (e.g. over 55 pounds) must be registered with the FAA as aircraft. Interestingly, 100% of the professionals point out the rules and regulations as important. The emphasis on regulation aligned with A professional explained that:

Sub-theme 2: no-fly zones. Professionals emphasized the importance of being aware of prohibited areas for drone flights, such as national parks, highways, airports and certain public spaces, without prior approval from Air Traffic Control (ATC). They highlighted the process of obtaining waivers for these restrictions to ensure legal compliance and operational safety.

Sub-theme 3: drone pilot certification. Recognizing the requirement for obtaining a Part 107 certification is critical. This certification validates a pilot’s ability to operate UAVs commercially within the regulatory framework, ensuring both safety and legality in various environments. A study by Hall and Rumley (2016) also discussed the importance and process of remote pilot certification in detail.

PTI practices: embodied technical competence and judgment. This PTI practice reveals the operational knowledge involved in the implementation of UAVs. This includes themes such as personnel, safety protocols, soft skills, UAV applications, UAV hardware and manual and automated flight navigation. Findings emerging from each theme are discussed below.

Sub-theme 1: safety protocols. During drone flights, maintaining situational awareness and executing smooth, steady maneuvers are essential. This includes continuously monitoring the surroundings to avoid obstacles and ensure the drone remains within the visual line of sight. Understanding how weather impacts UAV performance and planning flights during optimal conditions is also important. Keeping the drone within sight at all times prevents loss of control and ensures safety. Also, maintaining visual contact with the UAV allows operators to monitor its position and respond to any issues. It is also important to continuously scan the environment to anticipate and avoid potential hazards.

Sub-theme 2: UAV applications. Professionals in construction use UAVs for site inspections, ensuring safety and compliance from an aerial perspective. They use UAVs for progress documentation and surveying, providing accurate data and visual records of construction phases. Additionally, UAVs are instrumental in marketing and reporting, as well as conducting precise volumetric measurements for inventory and logistics. The findings of this study are consistent with Choi et al. (2023) and Yıldızel and Çalış (2019), who highlighted UAVs as indispensable for surveying, progress monitoring, building inspections, building measurement, site monitoring and safety inspection in construction projects.

Sub-theme 3: manual vs automated flights. Balancing between manual control for precise situational adjustments and automated flights for systematic coverage of larger areas is crucial. Mastering manual flight skills is essential for situations where automated systems may fail or require human intervention, while using automated flight plans often ensures consistent and repeatable data collection, particularly in complex projects. Professional UAV operation requires smooth and steady movements to capture high-quality data and imagery. Practicing controlled, steady movements to avoid jerky footage or data inaccuracies while using appropriate flight modes and gimbal settings helps maintain stability. Automated flight plans are programmed using applications such as DroneDeploy, ensuring efficient site coverage and data accuracy.

Sub-theme 4: UAV hardware. Ensuring the proper selection and maintenance of UAV hardware, such as RTK drones, controllers, propellers, SD cards, batteries, helipads and communication tools such as walkie-talkies or phones, is critical for the efficient and safe operation of drones. High-quality and reliable hardware minimizes the risk of technical failures and enhances the precision of data collection. Similarly, knowing the right resources required for a specific task is crucial for capturing high-quality images. Most professionals stated that they change UAV lenses depending on the type of project.

Sub-theme 5: soft skills. Soft skills such as effective communication and meticulous planning are essential for coordinating drone operations, ensuring that all team members are aligned and that operations are executed smoothly. Good communication prevents misunderstandings and enhances safety, while thorough planning helps anticipate potential challenges and devise effective strategies. A similar study (Av8 Prep) also identified soft skills as one of the key skills for effective implementation of UAVs.

Sub-theme 6: personnel. Having a trained crew, including a qualified pilot and a trained visual observer, is crucial for complying with safety regulations and ensuring successful mission execution. The expertise of trained personnel ensures that the UAV operations are conducted safely and effectively, minimizing risks and enhancing the quality of the outcomes.

PTI practices: interpretive dimensions of PTI. The themes that embodied this practice are categorized as data analysis and reporting knowledge. Data processing expertise includes sub-themes on post-flight data processing and software tools (Av8 Prep). These are further discussed below.

Sub-theme 1. post-flight data processing. Findings revealed that visual inspections are conducted by comparing the captured data with 3D models. The captured data are processed to generate outputs such as 3D models, orthomosaic images, point clouds, topography maps and georeferenced TIF files. Precise measurement and analysis of site conditions and materials were identified as vital by the professionals. Professionals use UAV data to perform volumetric calculations of stockpiles, excavated materials and other site elements to manage resources effectively. Integrating UAV data with other construction management tools and software provides comprehensive project insights and facilitates informed decision-making.

Sub-theme 2. Software tools. Software tools such as photogrammetry, Panorama, DroneDeploy and Pix4D are used to stitch images together and analyze data. Other software identified by Mohsan et al. (2023) are Skyworks Aerial System, SkyWards, RedBird, MapBox, Dedrone and Airware. As revealed by a professional: “Another thing is understanding the software for processing all those photos and videos.”

The implementation of UAVs in construction involves a series of professional practices that encompass thorough preparation, execution and post-processing. These practices are grounded in key PTI dimensions – professional foresight and regulatory reasoning; collective discipline and responsibility; adaptive expertise and decision-making; technical reasoning and interpretation; and professional communication of identity – which shape how operators understand, plan and carry out UAV work. Insights from interviews with 15 construction technologists reveal that these PTI practices unfold through a structured sequence of operational phases, including planning, pre-flight preparation, execution, post-flight analysis and communication of results. Figure 3 summarizes this workflow, while Tables 4 and 5 elaborate on the themes and sub-themes within each phase.

PTI practices: professional foresight and regulatory reasoning. This practice includes planning, which encompasses several key sub-themes such as weather assessment, FAA approvals, waypoint mapping and equipment checks. The professionals highlight that it is essential to discuss with the field team and clearly define the objectives of the flight, which will guide the flight plan and data collection process. Additionally, construction professionals emphasize assessing weather conditions to ensure safe and effective UAV deployment, avoiding potential disruptions from wind, rain or sunlight. They also meticulously examine airspace restrictions and secure necessary FAA clearances, maintaining continuous compliance throughout the project. For automated flights, professionals use tools such as DroneDeploy to map precise flight paths, ensuring efficient site coverage and accurate data collection. Thorough equipment checks are also conducted to prevent mid-flight failures, involving battery checks, firmware updates, SD card storage verification, physical inspections and remote controller readiness. These steps are crucial for maintaining operational integrity and ensuring successful UAV flights. One of the professionals explained their practices:

Another professional expatiated their practices:

Synthesis: The participants’ detailed accounts reveal that UAV planning in construction extends beyond basic task preparation; it reflects a structured decision-making process that integrates regulatory, environmental and technical dimensions of project management. The emphasis on FAA clearances demonstrates a compliance-oriented culture within professional UAV practice. Moreover, participants’ insistence on pre-flight checklists, collaborative discussions with field teams and the involvement of visual observers highlights the collective and procedural nature of UAV operations and a coordinated team-based process. These insights imply that UAV training programs for construction students should emphasize planning as a holistic competency, encompassing compliance literacy, environmental analysis and collaborative task execution.

PTI practices: collective discipline and responsibility. This practice includes pre-flight preparation that details sub-themes such as site inspection, gathering resources, automated mapping, pre-flight checks and detailed flight planning to ensure the mission’s success and safety. Site inspection is critical for understanding terrain and identifying obstacles, including mapping and requesting necessary clearances. Using software for pre-flight mapping helps in planning the flight path and ensuring coverage of the desired area. Gathering resources, such as protective gear and drone equipment, ensures readiness for all onsite scenarios. Also, thorough equipment checks, such as ensuring batteries are charged, firmware is updated and the drone’s physical condition is optimal, are crucial for preventing in-flight issues. Furthermore, drone setup and test flights are essential to verify operational functionality and control responsiveness, with professionals communicating with onsite teams to understand data capture requirements. It is also important that camera settings are adjusted for high-quality captures, managing filters, lighting, white balance and resolution based on task needs (Table 5). Another professional stated his actions:

Synthesis: Participants’ emphasis on thorough site inspection, equipment readiness and environmental assessment suggests that pre-flight preparation is a safety-oriented mindset and risk mitigation practice. Moreover, attention to camera calibration and lighting optimization indicates an understanding that participants are concerned about data output and visual accuracy, which are important for quality project deliverables. From an educational standpoint, this suggests UAV training should emphasize situational assessment, equipment assessment and adaptive decision-making.

PTI practices: adaptive expertise and decision-making. Professionals often exhibit adaptive expertise during flight executions through effective manual and automated UAV flights to ensure comprehensive site coverage and safety. Professionals always conduct manual flights, which involve manually maneuvering the drone to capture images and videos, while automated flights follow pre-planned routes using drone apps. These operations include monitoring the drone’s performance and intervening when necessary. Comprehensive site coverage is achieved by capturing images and videos from multiple angles to create detailed maps and models. Communication with onsite personnel is essential to avoid interruptions and ensure safety, as well as to identify specific areas of interest for data capture. Safety protocols are emphasized, such as maintaining a visual line of sight, activating obstacle avoidance features and ensuring clear spaces for takeoff and landing. Professionals manage onsite distractions and inquiries to maintain focus on operations. Adhering to FAA regulations, such as not flying over crowds without a permit, is crucial to prevent accidents and ensure smooth UAV operations. Table 5 details the PTI practice, themes and sub-themes.

PTI practices: technical reasoning and interpretation. During post-flight, professionals focus on leveraging technical reasoning and interpretation during analysis and processing to generate actionable insights. The captured data is transferred either manually from the SD card or directly uploaded to the cloud from the drone app. The data is processed using software tools. Software tools identified are photogrammetry, Panorama, DroneDeploy and Pix4Dand are used to stitch images together and analyze data. Visual inspections are conducted by comparing captured data with 3D models. Professionals process the captured data using software to generate various outputs such as 3D models, orthomosaic images, point clouds, topography maps and georeferenced TIF files. This processed data is essential for detailed site analysis and progress tracking. Here are the quotes from a few professionals:

Synthesis: The ability to interpret captured data and translate it into topographical maps, orthomosaics or 3D meshes highlights a shift toward digital construction practices where professionals construct meaning from visual data. This stage requires a blend of computational literacy, spatial reasoning and domain knowledge, suggesting that educational programs should incorporate data interpretation and visualization competencies to prepare future engineers for a digitized construction environment.

PTI practices: professional communication of identity. After successful UAV operation and data analysis, the final PTI practice involves an effective communication of identity through the professional presentation of results in various output formats for stakeholders. These professionals adopt platforms that provide rich visual displays of the analyzed data, including 3D models, orthomosaic images and other visual formats. These visualizations aid in project management, progress monitoring and marketing. Also, detailed reality-capture data can be presented to stakeholders to provide comprehensive insights into the construction site’s status. Similarly, detailed reports and visualizations are created for documentation and progress tracking. Also, captured photos and videos are uploaded to the company website for marketing purposes. 360° photos and videos provide comprehensive site views, enhancing stakeholder engagement and project transparency. One professional mentioned:

Synthesis: The emphasis on clarity, accessibility and realism in professionals’ presentations means that UAV education should include stakeholder-oriented reporting, enhancing student professionalism in construction practice.

The study further examined the professional challenges that shape how UAV operators negotiate, enact and sustain their PTI during real-world construction operations. Guided by the SPT, the PTI practices categories include professional safety judgment, professional ethical enactment and professional technical competence. The analysis revealed several recurrent challenges that practitioners must navigate in the field. These challenges clustered around safety risks, weather and environmental conditions, FAA regulatory barriers, public and community perceptions, drone interference and visual-range limitations and technical constraints such as battery life. Each domain corresponded to specific PTI practices through which operators interpreted risks, made decisions, adapted to situational demands and enacted their professional responsibilities. The themes, sub-themes and practitioner-generated solutions are summarized in Figure 4 and Tables 6 and 7, and discussed in detail in the sections that follow.

PTI practices: professional safety judgment. Professionals who identify with the implementation of UAVs often exercise expert judgment to ensure safety concerns, weather and environmental conditions are accounted for during flight plans. Safety remains a primary concern for drone operations in construction. These concerns encompass risks of injury because of drone crashes, coupled with the presence of people and equipment onsite. Additionally, participants emphasized the challenge of sharing airspace with other entities, such as helicopters, birds and airplanes, which may lead to crashes if the drone collides with other aircraft. Solutions included maintaining high situational awareness to visually identify these entities and immediately landing the drone to avoid those areas. One participant highlighted how people in congested job sites were a distraction for drone operators. The risks to people onsite were a significant concern to drone operators. Another professional revealed how he crashed the drone because of a collision with a tree when he was distracted by people asking questions about the drone. Professionals mitigated these risks by scheduling flights during off-hours, such as mornings or lunch breaks, and maintaining situational awareness during operations. One professional shared his experience with the helicopter:

Synthesis: The findings illustrate how drone operators actively translate safety regulations into field practices. This finding highlights the need for training that enhances risk perception, communication and situational competence skills for safe UAV integration in construction sites.

Weather and environmental conditions are major concerns when flying drones. Participants reported significant challenges caused by wind shear, overheating and other environmental hazards such as rain and sunlight. Wind shear, in particular, was frequently mentioned as a phenomenon where drone stability is compromised because of unpredictable wind behavior at varying altitudes. As revealed by a participant, sudden changes in wind speed at higher altitudes can destabilize drones, posing safety risks. Additionally, extremely hot weather conditions can lead to drone failures, though participants noted this is less common with newer drone models. To mitigate environmental challenges, participants suggested strategies such as adjusting flight altitudes, postponing flights during adverse weather, monitoring weather conditions and using drones with advanced stabilization technologies. Two professionals explained their solutions to weather challenges:

Synthesis: Professionals’ experiences with wind shear, temperature and weather disruptions reveal the environmental sensitivity of UAV implementation, where operators must constantly interpret meteorological cues. These findings reinforce the need for training programs that develop weather assessment and contingency planning skills.

PTI practices: professional ethical enactment. One of the most prominent challenges identified by participants is related to stringent FAA regulations and restricted airspace zones. Construction professionals often face difficulties obtaining approval to fly drones, especially near airports or highly regulated zones. These limitations not only delay project tasks but can also result in unanticipated issues. For example, for no-fly zones and geofencing, participants described instances where their drones were automatically grounded because of geofencing technology that prohibits flight in restricted areas. Similarly, regulatory approvals for drone flights, particularly near sensitive areas, are time-consuming. Even when requests are submitted, the wait can render drone flights impractical for tight project deadlines because of the delay in approval, hindering timely project execution. To overcome these challenges, professionals often enact their ethical judgments of the situation. Participants suggested improved planning and proactive approval requests to navigate these restrictions effectively. In cases where it’s not allowed to fly a drone, participants used other surveying technologies such as laser scanners. The professionals shared their stories:

Synthesis: The insights suggest that regulatory literacy is a core competency for UAV practitioners, and future policies should aim for risk-based, context-sensitive frameworks that enable responsible yet efficient drone use in construction. These practices highlight how UAV operators view their role as both innovators and compliance stewards.

Addressing public concerns regarding privacy intrusions was crucial for successful UAV implementation. Concerns arise from drones capturing footage of neighborhoods or residential areas. Strategies include maintaining a safe distance from residential zones and ensuring clear communication/requesting approval from the neighborhood. This finding corresponds to Yıldız et al. (2021), who noted that UAV operations often raise privacy and ethical concerns because of aerial surveillance. A similar study from Clothier et al. (2015) aligns with these findings. One of the professionals revealed his experience with a lady:

Synthesis: Participants’ encounters with community concerns about privacy reveal that UAV operators must be fluent communicators to earn societal trust. This suggests that UAV training should integrate ethics, communication and public relations to prepare future professionals for socially responsive implementation of UAVs.

PTI practices: professional technical competence. Drones deployed in construction sites must contend with hazards such as cranes, power lines, trees and obstructions. These site conditions can interfere with drone flights, sometimes leading to loss of connections with the drone, which can lead to crashes. Maintaining a clear line-of-sight with the drone is critical. More so, challenges arise when drones fly beyond the visual line-of-sight (BVLOS), which increases the risk of losing connection. Solutions include assigning visual observers with radios and ensuring awareness of onsite conditions. Participants emphasized the importance of pre-flight site inspections and careful piloting to navigate obstructions effectively. Three professionals explained their solution to visual range issues:

Synthesis: The findings suggest training programs should emphasize team coordination, risk anticipation and adaptive flight planning as integral components of UAV competency development.

Battery life emerged as a key constraint, limiting flight duration and requiring frequent battery changes. Professionals recommend using newer drone models with longer battery life, optimizing flight paths and using spare batteries. Incorporating advanced features such as obstacle avoidance systems was recognized as crucial for improving operational efficiency and safety.

The findings from this study provide a comprehensive understanding of Professional Technical Identity (PTI) practices required for the effective implementation of UAVs on construction sites. First, the knowledge and skills required for effective UAV implementation collectively reflect core PTI practices of professional ethical reasoning; embodied technical competence and judgment; and interpretive dimensions of PTI. These are further categorized into themes and subthemes, including regulatory knowledge; operational knowledge; technical proficiency in data analysis and reporting; and soft skills. Each domain plays a critical role in ensuring the successful adoption and utilization of UAVs in construction engineering practices. To fly UAVs in advanced countries, regulatory knowledge is foundational; understanding and adhering to FAA regulations is paramount for UAV operators in the construction industry. This includes knowledge of airspace restrictions, drone registration requirements, the necessity for drone pilot certification (Part 107), the awareness of no-fly zones and the ability to navigate regulatory landscapes, ensuring that UAV operations are compliant with legal standards, thereby mitigating risks associated with unauthorized drone flights. Studies by Ljungblad et al. (2021) and Hall and Rumley (2016) conclude that being a professional pilot requires knowledge of regulations, training and networks to ensure safer drone practices in society. Similarly, studies by Yıldızel and Çalış (2019) also confirm the importance of regulatory knowledge in their comparative review of UAV regulations across the USA, European Union, China and Turkey. Yıldızel and Çalış (2019) showed that major differences in altitude limits, operator qualifications and operational permissions across regions have a direct impact on how efficiently and safely UAVs can be implemented on construction sites. Operational knowledge encompasses a range of skills from pre-flight planning to post-flight data processing. It requires meticulous pre-flight checks, understanding the purpose of capture and the ability to execute both manual and automated flights. Yıldızel and Çalış (2019) further emphasized that clear and updated regulatory structures, alongside standardized operator training, are essential to maximize UAV benefits in construction project management. Soft skills, including communication and planning, are vital for coordinating UAV operations. For example, when professionals emphasized the importance of communication, planning, passion, time management and problem-solving, this was not merely procedural; it represented an identity practice of embodied technical competence and judgment that reinforces their credibility, confidence and collaboration, aligning with PTI frameworks discussed by Tomori and Ogunseiju (2024).

Technical proficiency in data analysis includes the ability to generate and interpret advanced outputs such as 3D models, orthomosaic images and topographic maps. Mastery of software tools such as photogrammetry, DroneDeploy and Pix4D enables construction professionals to transform raw UAV data into actionable insights for project planning and decision-making. These knowledge, technical skills and practical strategies enable construction professionals to make informed decisions based on precise and comprehensive data. These operational competencies not only enhance technical proficiency but also contribute to the PTI practice of interpretive reasoning, reinforcing a meticulous, safety-conscious mindset (Av8 Prep). Such skills are essential for students as they transition from academic learning to professional practice, reinforcing their identity as capable and reliable construction engineers.

Second, construction professionals cultivate UAV expertise through a structured framework encompassing planning, pre-flight preparation, execution, safety protocols, data analysis and result presentation. This entire process reflects sequenced PTI practices of professional foresight and regulatory reasoning; collective discipline and responsibility; adaptive expertise and decision-making; technical reasoning and interpretation; and professional communication of identity. This process begins with thorough site inspections, airspace checks and equipment readiness, followed by precise execution of flights. Safety measures, such as maintaining a visual line of sight, high situational awareness and adhering to obstacle avoidance protocols, are integral to minimizing risks during operations. Third, while UAV offers significant potential for enhancing efficiency and productivity, navigating regulatory hurdles, mitigating environmental and safety risks and ensuring operator competency are critical for successful integration. Similarly, findings from Yıldız, Kıvrak et al. (2021) and Clothier et al. (2015) highlighted that UAV operations often raise privacy and ethical concerns because of aerial surveillance. For instance, a study by Luppicini and So (2016) highlights several challenges associated with the use of commercial drones, including social and ethical issues such as safety, moral considerations, legal compliance, privacy, airspace management, information integrity, human–machine interaction and commercial implications. Ravich (2016) conducted a comparative global analysis of drone laws and found variation across nations, with some countries adopting a conservative regulatory approach, by strictly controlling commercial drone use while permitting limited recreational operations. These challenges highlight the need for continuous training, technological advancements and strategic planning to support UAV integration in the construction industry.

This study contributes to SPT by extending its application to the emerging domain of autonomous robotic technologies, specifically UAV practice in construction. Building on Schatzki’s (1996) dimensions of practical understanding, general understanding, rules and teleo-affective structures, this study shows how these dimensions materialize in concrete PTI practices: professional ethical reasoning (e.g. FAA regulations, no-fly zones, Part 107 certification); embodied technical competence and judgment (e.g. flight skills, safety protocols, hardware configuration and camera and flight-mode settings); and interpretive dimensions of PTI (e.g. post-flight data processing, software-mediated analysis and stakeholder-oriented communication). In doing so, our findings advance SPT by articulating a sequenced architecture of practice expressed through the PTI categories of professional foresight and regulatory reasoning, collective discipline and responsibility; adaptive expertise and decision-making; technical reasoning and interpretation; and professional communication of identity. These PTI practices unfold across the phases of planning, pre-flight preparation, execution, analysis and presentation, demonstrating how professional identities are authored through repeated participation in rule-governed, technologically mediated and collectively organized activities.

The framework therefore advances SPT beyond its more traditional applications in classroom and workplace learning by foregrounding the role of regulatory literacy and risk management as central “rules” and teleo-affective orientations in practice; clarifying how digital tools and visual data extend what counts as practical understanding in high-tech construction settings; and illustrating how professional technical identity is negotiated at the intersection of competence, compliance and meaning-making in autonomous robot operations.

The findings from this study have meaningful implications for both construction industry practice and PID of construction engineering and management (CEM) students. First, the findings can be leveraged for curriculum development. By incorporating UAV training modules into CEM programs, students can be equipped with the regulatory, operational and data analysis skills essential for modern construction practices. To further reinforce students’ professional technical identity by connecting theory to practice, CEM programs leverage the study’s findings for developing UAV-based assignments, simulations and site-based projects in existing construction technology courses. Likewise, practical exercises and case studies of the challenges and solutions identified in this study can be used to enrich students’ learning experiences. An example of a practical case study that can be used for students is where one professional explained the real-world constraints of UAV operations and how they devised an alternative method: “There are places where we can’t fly, like near the federal prison. In such cases, we had to send a field crew to do the surveying on the ground instead. In sensitive areas with geofencing, the drone will automatically stop if it attempts to enter those zones.”

Second, encouraging students to obtain relevant certifications, such as the FAA Part 107, a required practice revealed in this study, can serve as a competitive edge in the job market. Certification not only validates students’ skills but also demonstrates their commitment to adhering to industry standards. Third, investing in advanced UAV systems with stronger resistance to environmental interference and extended battery life can greatly enhance the quality of data collection while minimizing operational disruptions. Fourth, construction companies can use these findings to design targeted training programs aligned with PTI practices by equipping new hires with foundational UAV knowledge and skills, necessary to foster a workforce prepared to address the challenges of integrating UAVs into construction workflows. By integrating these findings into CEM education and professional development initiatives, academic institutions and industry stakeholders can better prepare students and professionals for the evolving technological demands of the construction industry.

This study contributes to positioning UAV-related practices as identity-shaping professional practices. The three key contributions of the study include reconceptualizing practitioner knowledge as PTI development; introducing a sequenced PTI conceptual framework across the UAV operational lifecycle; and extending SPT to UAV-enabled construction contexts. It offers:

• Reconceptualizing practitioner knowledge as PTI development. First, this study moves beyond viewing UAV work as isolated technical skills or procedural checklists (e.g. FAA compliance, flight skills, data processing) and demonstrates how these competencies function as identity-building practices through which professionals come to understand who they are, what to do and how they should act in UAV-enabled construction roles. This study advances existing UAV and construction education literature by positioning technical competence as inseparable from PTI practices.

• Introducing a sequenced PTI practices across the UAV operational lifecycle. Second, the study contributes a sequenced PTI practice that captures professional identity formation as a process. While practitioners commonly recognize operational phases such as planning, pre-flight preparation, execution, post-flight analysis and communication, prior research has not conceptualized how professional identity is progressively enacted and negotiated across these phases. This study explicitly links each stage of the UAV operational lifecycle to distinct PTI practices. In doing so, this study demonstrates that PTI development is cumulative, context-dependent and embedded in routine practice. This study provides a foundation for future research, curriculum design and workforce development in Construction 5.0.

• Extending SPT to autonomous robotic construction contexts

• The paper also makes a theoretical contribution by extending SPT to the domain of autonomous and semi-autonomous robotic technologies in construction. While SPT has traditionally been applied to learning, workplace routines and social interaction, this study shows how Schatzki’s dimensions of rules, practical understanding and teleo-affective structures are reconfigured in technologically mediated environments such as UAV operations.

This study is not without limitations. First, the participant pool was limited to 15 professionals within the VDC specialization. Future research could include participants from diverse specializations, such as safety management or site operations, to compare identity practices across contexts. Second, as a qualitative study, the findings reflect interpretive insights derived from self-reported experiences rather than objective behavioral measures. Incorporating mixed methods, such as observational or performance-based assessments, may enhance the robustness and triangulation of future results.

This study investigates how construction professionals think, reason and act when implementing UAVs during construction workflows. Through a qualitative research design, data were collected using semi-structured interviews with 15 VDC professionals. Thematic analysis was used to identify and interpret three core categories of knowledge, which are regulatory knowledge, operational knowledge and data analysis and reporting knowledge, with five-step UAV implementation practices: planning, pre-flight, execution, analysis and result presentation and six key challenge domains safety, regulatory restrictions, environmental conditions, visual interference, drone limitations and public perception.

This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the PTI practices, such as knowledge and skills necessary for the effective implementation of UAVs in the construction industry. These practices underscore the importance of balancing regulatory compliance, technical expertise, operational safety and data-driven decision-making to maximize the benefits of UAV integration. Construction professionals’ engagement with UAVs demonstrates their technical and professional identity practices by mastering essential competencies such as FAA regulation compliance, site-specific flight planning, situational awareness and advanced data processing. These competencies contribute to developing a safety-conscious and technically proficient workforce, ensuring that UAV integration aligns with industry advancements and regulatory frameworks. The study extends prior research by illustrating how professionals embody PTI practices through adaptive flight planning, risk mitigation strategies, team coordination, regulatory reasoning and reflective problem-solving while engaging with emerging technologies.

This study highlights the broader implications for construction education and workforce development. For educators and industry stakeholders, the findings serve as a guideline for incorporating UAV-related skills into CEM curricula. By integrating targeted training modules, hands-on exercises and certifications such as FAA Part 107, academic programs can equip students with the knowledge and skills required to navigate complex regulatory and technological landscapes. Investments in advanced UAV technology and the development of tailored training programs aligned with PTI practices can further address the evolving challenges of UAVs in construction workflows. By embracing these findings, educators, professionals and policymakers can better prepare the construction workforce for a future driven by technological innovation. This research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on human–technology interaction by providing actionable insights into how UAV technologies can be effectively embedded in education and practice, advancing both safety and innovation across the construction sector.

This paper is an extended version of our previous work, presented at the International Conference of Smart and Sustainable Built Environment (SASBE 2024), Auckland, New Zealand. The authors acknowledge the support and feedback from the chairs of the conference, Prof. Ali Ghaffarian Hoseini, Prof. Amirhosein Ghaffarian Hoseini and Prof. Farzad Rahimian and their team throughout the previous peer review process of SASBE2024 and during the conference that helped improve our submissions.

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (Award #: 2306226). Any opinions, findings or conclusions expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.