Chapter 13: Student Tracking and the Powerful Effects of Opt-In Courses On Self-Concept: Reflected-Glory Effects Do Exist After All

What makes people feel more competent: being one of the best in a generally low-achieving environment, or ranking in the lower half of a highly selective, high-status group? More specifically, who will report a more positive self-view: the winner of a high school athletics contest or a participant in the Olympic Games who has no chance of winning? The solo soprano in a second-class company or a member of the chorus at a famous opera house? Better students in special education classes or students with low grades at an elite school?

Psychological research has a long history of asking such questions, and has come up with many answers, some of which are—at first glance— quite surprising and perplexing. To cut a long story short, there is now abundant evidence to show that a person’s self-concept of ability is influenced to a remarkable extent by the achievement of others in his or her immediate environment, and less so by his or her objective standing. It has become common to explain this phenomenon as the result of a “frame of reference effect.” Individuals tend to construct their frames of reference from people close to them (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2002; Tesser, 1988). “Closeness” can consist in certain similarities in age, race, or body weight, or in more psychological variables such as attitudes or life goals. Very often, however, the frame of reference is simply the physical environment: one’s classmates, members of the same athletics club, people who work in the same institution.