The Role of Computer Simulations and Digital Gaming in Distance Education

As businesses prepare for the demands of a rapidly evolving, information-driven society, it becomes evident new skills and knowledge are necessary in the workplace (Howland & Moore, 2002). This causes many adults to seek additional education and find distance learning a convenient way to acquire the needed knowledge; however, learners in general are demanding to be permitted to learn from a distance (Howland & Moore, 2002; Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015). More and more students are finding there are many benefits to participating in the distance education learning experience, as enrollment in distance education programs continues to rise (Kim & Bonk, 2006). This rise in enrollment can be attributed to the fact that online learning allows for flexibility of access, from anywhere and in many cases on demand, which gives participants the opportunity to save time without the use of public space (Dede, 1996; Kim & Bonk, 2006).

The increased focus on gaming for educational purposes has developed over the last decade, with researchers identifying key pedagogical features that make good video games inherently strong learning tools (Bidarra, Rothschild, & Squire, 2011; Cruz-Cunha, Carvalho, & Tavares, 2011). Such features include real-time adaptation, self-explanation, and distributed learning. The use of these pedagogical strategies is usually not an option in the instructional environment because most curricula are developed to suit the lesson objectives instead of addressing the learning style of the student (Akilli, 2007).

Even though the use of computer simulations and games in distance education is a fairly new phenomena and research in this area is limited, there are still ongoing efforts directed at developing and studying the use of computer simulations in distance education, which provides a special place for both in learning technologies (Lunce, 2004). Furthermore, Lunce (2004) believes computer simulations and gaming draw their importance from the ability to present interactivity between participants and allowing experimentation and discovery learning of multifaceted skills in a close to real-world environment.

There are many reasons educational researchers are advocating the use of computer simulations and games in the field of distance education. The list of reasons include: (1) its framework is grounded in a variety of learning theories; (2) it appeals to a diverse audience; (3) it fosters emotional intelligence; and (4) it supports and/ or supplements a plethora of pedagogical strategies.

Today’s learners, better known as Generation Y or Millennials (born 1980 to 1995) and Generation Z (born 1996 onward), are well versed in the mechanics of technology use (Hart, 2008). They eagerly await the latest gadget, excited about exploring the functionality of the new device. These learners have been described as “digital natives” (Prensky, 2010) because they were born during the age of explosive technological advancements and are familiar with its use and application (Kiili, 2005; Prensky, 2010). Engaging these learners is not a problem; however, guiding this engagement towards a learning goal or objective is a major concern for educators across the globe. Many educational institutions are turning to computer simulations and digital games to address the academic engagement of Generations Y and Z.

The reason for the big shift in pedagogical methods is based on research showing the gaming industry has captured the attention of more young adults than even the movie industry (Graesser, Chipman, & King, 2008), which alerts instructional designers to the many possibilities to increase educational engagement by merging the marriage of education and videogamelike entertainment (Brody, 1993). However, the burden of making the relationship between education and gaming work is not left entirely to the educational staff. Many teachers feel they must be the “sage on the stage” when it comes to pedagogical strategies; however, the focus should not be on the level of skills the teacher possess, but rather how technology can and should be used by students to facilitate their own learning (Prensky, 2010). A recent definition of educational technology includes the words “facilitating learning” to show that emphasis in the field is no longer based on delivering instructional content, but more about designing learning environments that produces knowledge construction (Molenda & Januszewski, 2008).

Facilitating a relationship between education and computer simulations/gaming should include development of a theoretical framework grounded in the appropriate learning theory. The first step in identifying the proper learning theory is to create a roadmap that details the learning objectives, the method of instruction, and includes assessment. Serious games (SG), which are games that are designed for a specific purpose other than entertainment or fun, are targeted by instructional designers because they already include many of the attributes necessary to bridge the gap between education and video-type games. Some positive characteristics found in serious games include motivational qualities and influence on participants (de Freitas & Jarvis, 2006). Additionally, serious games integrate elements of emotional intelligence in the form of soft skills such as problem-solving, leadership, decisionmaking, inquiry, multitasking, long-term collaboration, and creativity (de Freitas et al., 2012; de Freitas & Routledge, 2013), which are considered important knowledge acquisition tools in education.

Pivec and Dziabenko (2004) revealed several steps instructional designers should consider when creating a road map for an effective and serious game. In the first step, the designer should:

• determine pedagogical approach (how you believe learning takes place);

• situate the task in a model world;

• elaborate the details;

• incorporate underlying pedagogical support;

• map learning activities to interface actions; and

• map learning concepts to interface objects (Pivec & Dziabenko, 2004).

Pivec and Dziabenko (2004) further explained that in addition to the recommended steps necessary to create a serious game roadmap, the design process must have intentional goals, meaning to identify the material the learner is expected to master. Use these goals to present the material in such a manner that the learner will be motivated to continue engaging the game regardless of repeated failed attempts. Pivec and Dziabenko believe this type of strategy leads to effective feedback and are preferred over the text-based feedback.

There are various learning theories across many disciplines; however, researchers are hard-pressed to find one that is exclusive to any one form of pedagogy. Ally (2004) characterizes the behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist framework as similar in many aspects, which allows designers to include variations of each in the gaming design of distance education materials. Instructional designers are aware of the challenge of selecting learning theories to help develop a foundational platform for development of educational gaming applications (Ally, 2004). The most important aspect of online learning program creation is that designers know research and theories are constantly changing; therefore, selecting the best approach to learning is detrimental to developing online materials. Ally (2004) believes that each learning strategy should be identified based on its ability to “motivate learners, facilitate deep processing, build the whole person, cater for individual differences, promote meaningful learning, encourage interaction, provide feedback, facilitate contextual learning, and provide support during the learning process” (Ally, 2004, p. 18).

Meanwhile, the prevalent learning theory many designers are using to develop the framework for computer simulations and games is grounded in constructivism. Constructivist theorists believe learners gain an understanding of information and the world around them based on personal experiences. These experiences can derive from events and environmental occurrences observed by the learner and placed in context centered on individual interpretations (Cooper, 1993).

Educational researchers and psychologists who are proponents of the constructionist learning theory includes well-known names such as, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, and Jerome Bruner. Their research is centered on the idea that knowledge acquisition occurs best when learners interact with the environment, while using prior experiences to organize mental schemas. Cruz-Cunha et al. (2011) note it is imperative that constructivism ideology be used to develop the theoretical framework for computer simulations and gaming applications. They based this conclusion on research conducted by Bruner, which implies a curriculum’s intent is to help the student become an autonomous learner, while gaining mastery of the material and developing problem-solving techniques. Additionally, Cruz-Cunha et al. (2011) believes the Piagetian ideology of constructivism helps merge the relationship between education and games by noting the importance of including authentic settings based on student abilities. This, according to Cruz- Cunha et al. increases the effectiveness of the lesson.

Furthermore,

Additionally, Dede (1996) reveals that providing learners with constructivist experiences, while assuming they have assimilated is important when facilitating their full comprehension, long-term retention, and ability to generalize instructional material.

In the distance learning environment, students are expected to possess a certain level of intrinsic motivation and be capable of self-regulating study habits to arrive at the desire learning outcome. In some K–12 virtual schools across the country, students must take a self-assessment questionnaire centered on level of motivation to determine if online learning is a “right fit” before enrolling in the virtual school of choice (Simonson, 2016). To that end, motivation plays an important role in the success of all students and must be considered when conducting research concerning the effectiveness of different pedagogical methods. This also holds true in distance education, as research has shown that intrinsically motivated students demonstrate characteristics that are self-regulated, and explorative, resulting in a deeper level of thinking processes (Connolly & Stansfield, 2006; Martens, Gulikers, & Bastiaens, 2004). Often, this type of discovery-based learning requires the use of analytical skills; and therefore, gives the student a sense of autonomous learning. Computer simulations and games are an excellent tool that can be used to develop the student’s thinking processes, which enhances retention of information.

Barab and Duffy (2000) revealed that numerous educators and policymakers are advocating for a move away from “teachercentered” models of instruction toward a more “learner-centered” and “communitybased” model. Additionally, they reported that other researchers felt the word “community” was at risk of losing its meaning due to confusion as to the difference between a community of learners and a group of students learning collaboratively. To clarify this point, Barab and Duffy (2000) described communities as having three components in common: (1) a common cultural and historical heritage, including shared goals, understandings, and practices; (2) individuals becoming a part of something larger; and (3) the ability to reproduce as new members work alongside more competent others. (pp. 26–27)

When the purpose of including competition in educational games is to increase memory of the targeted material, DeLeeuw and Mayer (2011) recommend adding competitive features to the computer-based learning activity. They believe this learning strategy works well with all learners (para. 4.5). However, DeLeeuw and Mayer further assert that adding the competitive feature to computer-based learning activities does not work very well when the goal is to obtain deep cognitive processing during learning; therefore, adding this feature is not recommended, especially for men (para. 4.5).

A very important characteristic of computer simulations and games is the ability to embed prompts that allows both designer and learner to change, edit or modify the learning environment based on the different learning styles of the users. Should the learner engage the educational game and find the material to be more challenging than originally expected, the user can adapt or change the level of difficulty. Once the learner finds the place where prior knowledge marries with development of new information, the learner will be more motivated to continue the game (Moreno-Ger, Burgos, Martínez- Ortiz, Sierra, & Fernández-Manjón, 2008). Moreno-Ger et al. (2008) reveals that another benefit of creating adaptive features in digital gaming applications is to supplement the interactivity of the game among users. The use of learning management systems gives the designer the flexibility to create tracking systems within the games to guide the learning process and ensure the learning objectives are being met. Adaption also gives the users flexibility in reference to course completion guidance, monitoring behavior patterns and assessment feedback.

Educators are always concerned about selecting assessment tools that will accurately gauge the success of the pedagogical strategy used to deliver the lesson. Computer simulations and games are an excellent tool to use for the purpose of monitoring the learning environment through assessments. A very important part of any learning environment is the assessment of the learning experience.

Computer simulations and games enrich the learning experience through an interactive medium that can be manipulated based on the learner’s profile (Moreno-Ger et al., 2008). As with adaption, the computer simulation and game can be modified to monitor student activity, log events and participation in activities and can be done remotely through the selected learning management system of choice (Moreno-Ger et al., 2008).

When designers include self-explanation into the computer simulation or game, it allows the learner to insert a response to every move or decision made within the application. Opponents of computer simulations and games have mixed reviews about the effectiveness of self-explanation because they feel it takes away from the learner’s level of motivation to complete the game. However, Johnson and Mayer (2010) found that allowing the learner to explain or give a reason for the choices made within the application contributes to what is called the “value-added” approach. Johnson and Mayer further report that self-explanation helps the learner to better understand the lesson’s academic content. It is reported that embedding self-explanation features into computer simulations and games leads to higher academic performance by learners using applications containing this features than those who do not self-explain.

Computer simulations and games are taking hold in distance education by using a pedagogical strategy called “distributed simulation.” When using the single-user simulation the individual is able to interact with a model of reality, whereas the distributed simulations enable several people at various locations to occupy and form a common artificial environment (Dede, 1996). This allows the learners to interact and collaborate, leading to a more studentcentered and community-based learning environment.

Kim and Bonk (2006) found that as the Federal Communications Commission addresses the need for increased bandwidth, Internet technologies, and capabilities, as well as online computer-based simulation and gaming tasks that online students engage in, will become more realistic and authentic (p. 29). Researchers have found that student engagement is an indicator of the effectiveness of the learning outcome, provided the activities are purposeful and has a set of learning objectives (Zhao, & Kuh, 2004). Computer simulations and digital games are appealing to most users because of the challenges presented in a social collaborative atmosphere. Through collaborative learning communities, students are able to relate prior experiences into authentic learning based on the academic and social activities found within the computer simulation or game (Newell, 1999).

In the past educators have been reluctant to use computer games for educational purposes; however, there is evidence indicating that using computer simulations and digital games may teach people more effectively than traditional methods (McClarty et al., 2012). Interest has increased across the board, to look at the use of digital games as serious learning and assessment tools (Vogel et al., 2006). However, the concern for many researchers is whether gaming develops cognitive and psychomotor skills that will transfer to different tasks in the real world.

Some colleges and universities have identified the need to produce curricula that can be used by the students to construct their own learning. Texas A&M University-Commerce, in Commerce, Texas, where Mary Jo Dondlinger is an assistant professor of educational technology, has taken steps to make the transition from teacher-centered to student-centered learning. Dondlinger (2015) believes there are qualities good computer simulations and gaming courses must possess, which should be centered on learning strategies and technologies that take into consideration critical and creative thinking. Dondlinger lists some of these critical and creative thinking techniques as, competition, open-mindedness, self-direction, critical curiosity, perseverance, and empathy. According to Dondlinger (2015), not only do computer simulations and games support critical and creative thinking techniques, but also critical and creative problem-solving. Students in distance education programs prefer the inclusion of critical and creative thinking processes in the online learning environment; however, Bonk conducted a survey and “found that only 23%–45% of online instructors surveyed actually used online activities related to critical and creative thinking, hands-on performances, interactive labs, data analysis, and scientific simulations” (Bonk & Kim, 2006, p. 23).

Tobias, Fletcher, and Wind (2014) addressed the concern of learner transfer by comparing two conflicting studies, one conducted in 1994 by Gopher, Weil, and Bareket, and another study conducted in 1992 by Hart and Battiste. In the Gopher et al. study, a computer game was used, which was modified by Donchin (1989) from the original (Mane & Donchin, 1989) model, called Space Fortress II. The results showed the participants in the game group significantly outperformed the controlled group. Meanwhile, Hart and Battiste used an off-the-shelf computer game called Apache Strike Force and found no transfer resulting from playing the computer game. However, Tobias et al. (2014) attributed this difference in results to the fact the Space Fortress II computer game used a simulation that closely resembled a plane cockpit for its study and no similar enhancements were made to the Apache Strike Force game. Since this comparison of studies, many other researchers have conducted studies and found significant results warranting the use of computer simulations and digital games for learning. Zhao and Kuh (2004) found that computer simulations and games can effectively help learners transfer what they have studied in one course to other assignments or academic requirements in other courses. This allows the learner to develop schemas that will create a certain level of familiarity when engaging new material.

Researchers have noted various disadvantages of computer simulations and games in comparison to other modalities (Lunce, 2004). Students in the distance education environment often take this route to help improve time management within their daily lives. Because computer simulations and games usually employ problem and discovery-based learning practices, they could be viewed to some of too time consuming (Lunce, 2004).

Another problem researchers found is that simulations could present a certain level of difficulty to learners who are not familiar with the complex content and interfaces (Graesser et al., 2008). An additional challenge Dede (1996) introduced was a concern with addiction, which could be a possible downside to computer-based simulations and gaming. Dede feels the use of avatars allows the learner to mask their identity; thereby, resulting in longterm use. Meanwhile, Cruz-Cunha et al. (2011) reports, overcoming the technology gap between learners and institutions is another problem interfering with the use computer simulations and gaming in the distance learning environment. Finally, some researchers feel there is a disconnection between what students want and what is being presented in the distance learning environment, especially when looking at the area of communication in the traditional as opposed to the eLearning environment. Connolly and Stansfield (2006) compared communication in the virtual classroom with that of the traditional classroom and discovered that the same types of communication interactions found in the traditional classroom were also found in the eLearning environment. Finally, Lunce (2004) feels computer simulations and games could be expensive and require an extensive planning, human and financial resources.

Computer simulations and digital games are very important to the field of distance education as classrooms across the globe are faced with the challenge of how to deliver a quality education with a decrease budget. Massively multiplayer online games are popular in many learning environments and have the ability to replace a large amount of students; while reducing the number of instructors found in enormous lecture-type classes (Annetta, 2008). Additionally, Annetta (2008) found that “video games in education are gaining attention; it becomes more and more critical that empirical research be done on why and how games can impact students” (p. 237). Annetta further reveals those individuals interested in gaming for educational purposes should collaborate to help provide the necessary research to determine why and how games can impact students.

In spite of the benefits computer simulations and games provide to the distance learning environment, Connolly and Stansfield (2006) acknowledge that “it is accepted that games-based eLearning will not be for all learners and it is accepted that there may be issues surrounding development costs” (p. 473). However, they feel there are many valid case studies available that indicates the successful use of games-based eLearning; therefore, additional research should be conducted to further understand the capabilities and limitations of gaming in the distance learning environment (Connolly & Stansfield, 2006).

Computer-based simulations and games present many ways to enhance cognitive development for a variety of learners with various levels of experience and abilities. However, additional research is needed to help instructional designers address methods of developing games that will measure variables affecting transfer of knowledge such as motivation, cognitive load, and engagement during playing, prior game experience and how the players feel about games in the educational environment. Similarly, research is needed to determine the consequences of adding other game features intended to promote deep learning, such as narrative theme, to a computer-based educational game (DeLeeuw & Mayer, 2011).

Even though computer-based simulations and gaming can help increase cognitive learning, traditional learning theories cannot be ignored. For example, the choice of pedagogical strategies used to implement innovative software tools and games and simulations in the distance learning environment should include concepts from some of the traditional constructivist theorists such as Brunner and discoverybased learning, Piaget and the stage theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky’s social development theory, and Lave’s situated learning theory (Bidarra, Rothschild, & Squire, 2011). This will ensure continuity among researchers and instructional designers when comparing data for development and implementation of a new computer simulation or gaming idea.