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Purpose

Seeks to examine three empirical studies carried out in Canada, the UK and Europe with comparisons drawn on their approach and findings.

Design/methodology/approach

The studies were compared using a framework, developed by the authors, along four central elements and two influencing drivers.

Findings

Little measurement consistency or output value was evident. The current focus on isolated studies, carried out at a macro level, is discouraged.

Practical implications

Future studies need greater rigour, and consequently might be of more value to academics and practitioners.

Originality/value

The lack of research consistency is highlighted. Recommendations are made for stronger adhesion with other disciplines to develop a robust research agenda.

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