Human Resource Development Free

In 2009 enterprises in USA spent an estimated $126 billion dollars on employee learning and development. Studies in the 1990s estimated that formal education and training contributes only 10 to 20 percent to individual work effectiveness. Most work-based learning is opportunistic and unplanned. Perhaps 90 percent of training investment is wasted? This well-established text illuminates the situation. Chapter 11, “Employee counselling and wellness services” (35 pp.) informs that despite legislation, and human resource development (HRD) efforts using “constructive confrontation” of poor workplace performance, enterprises in USA face huge problems with “unhealthy” employees. “HRD and diversity” (chapter 15, 30 pp.) conveys a similar message about success in promoting equality of opportunity. What guidance does Human Resource Development offer on managing training to maximise returns on the investment? Its diagnosis is that HRD practitioners and researchers need to do more thorough needs assessment (NA) of problems in the workplace, design better training to address them, deliver that training more effectively to HRD staff and others, and evaluate its outcomes more rigorously through research using experimental designs. Part 2, chapters 4-7 (132 pp.) – “Framework for HRD” – describes these core aspects of “instructional systems design” (ISD), which is the main focus of this review.

Part 1 is “Foundations of HRD”. Chapter 1, “Introduction to HRD” (33 pp.) defines HRD narrowly as “a set of systematic and planned activities designed by an organization to provide its members with the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet current and future job demands” (p. 4). Its key functions are training, organisation and career development, integrated with strategic management. Chapter 2, “Influences on employee behavior” (30 pp.) presents a “sampling of concepts and theories” (p. 62) that may explain employee task and citizenship behaviour in workplaces, and inform HRD interventions. Chapter 3, “Learning and HRD” (39 pp.) defines learning as “a relatively permanent change in behavior, cognition or affect that occurs as a result of one's interaction with the environment” (p. 67). Key factors in learning are trainee characteristics, training design and conditions of practice.

Part 3, “HRD applications” addresses “individual” issues in chapters 8-12 and “macro” issues in chapters 13-15, a distinction that is not elaborated. “Onboarding: employee socialization and orientation”, (chapter 8, 32 pp.) covers “everything from recruitment to orientation, to the effective settling in of the employee into his or her job” (p. 256). “Skills and technical training” (chapter 9, 33 pp.) discusses basic workplace competency development. Its final section, on certification and continuing education of HRD professionals echoes chapter 1. “Coaching and performance” (chapter 10, 33 pp.) describes steps for coaches to follow in analysing and developing performance. “Career management and development” (chapter 12, 47 pp.) argues that “career” remains relevant, and contrasts “stage” with protean and “career concepts” models.

“Management development”, chapter 13 (36 pp.), the first “macro” issue discusses education, leadership training and on-the-job experiences. “Organization development (OD) and change” (chapter 14, 39 pp.) maintains that OD theories lack research basis, advances Porras and Silvers' (1991) model, and sees line managers designing strategy as “change managers” and HRD staff, or consultants as “change agents”.

Contents of this sixth edition reflect two HRD competency studies of American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) and 1,200+ new sources. They include preface, brief and extended contents but no list of tables or figures. “Learner aids” comprise: glossary (11-page double-columned), name and subject index (3 and 13 pages respectively), and endnotes (94 double-columned pages of references). References are not listed alphabetically, nor are key texts highlighted for beginning students, supervisors or managers who, with HRD specialists are target audiences. Online ancillaries comprise: instructor's manual (with test bank), PowerPoint slides and student website, resources apparently inaccessible to those residing outside North America.

Chapters follow a standard pattern: five to nine learning objectives, a case that “places contents […] in a meaningful context” (p. xii), introduction, illustrations, examples and (unnumbered) boxed inserts, end-of-chapter questions on opening case, where “your instructor has further information”, summary, list of key terms and concepts – most also in glossary, 6 to 13 “questions for discussion”, and one or two exercises “to provide further experience with applying materials from the text, or to see how the materials relate to a real-world setting” (ibid). Disappointingly, chapters lack a conclusion. A text feature that certainly promotes “ease of reading” is numbered reference to endnotes; however, currency-concerned readers need constantly to check for publication dates (and authors).

Authors conclude with the hope that readers acquired “an appreciation for HRD as a means to promote workplace learning and performance” (p. 543). Yet contexts discussed are generally large US enterprises with functioning HR departments – though some “opening cases” are international, such as K-Bank in Thailand. This review, by an HRD student/course designer/teacher, addresses three questions: how well does the text (a) represent ISD, (b) address criticisms of ISD, and (c) conceptualise the role of research in promoting workplace learning and enhanced performance? (Space constrains detailed critique of individual chapters but contact jdewarw@gmail.com if required).

Different aspects of instructional systems design as an HRD “process model” are highlighted in half-page illustrations in five chapters. Yet ISD as “system” is not explained in text or glossary. Nor is it shown that systems are located within organisational contexts, where facilitating or constraining forces reflect history and external pressures. Systems also comprise sub-systems – for identifying, selecting, training and evaluating trainers, or for performance appraisal, but this is not discussed. Also unmentioned are system inputs, processes and outputs. Authors do not justify sub-components, for example why the ISD figure shows NA comprising two steps viz. “assess” and “prioritize” needs, while design has six, implementation one viz. “deliver” and evaluation four. Arrows also puzzle: evaluation apparently relates only to objectives and program implementation rather than to all stages of design and delivery. Prior to downloading this text's online resources teachers would evaluate and, no doubt subsequently adapt them prior to use with their students! Chapter 4 discusses NA at strategic/organisational, task and person level, with lists of data sources, but in a general way rather than modelling what is involved – though chapter 2 endorses behaviour-modelling as a way to influence behaviour. Only task analysis is illustrated, but without identifying its products such as issues in work behaviour or performance that training could be designed to address.

Chapter 5 also does not take work analysis as its starting point for selection and “design” of training strategy from many options available. It advocates and illustrates Mager objectives, considers “make-versus-buy” options (in a design chapter?), and discusses trainer selection/training, lesson planning, training methods and media, preparing training materials and scheduling. In short design issues of structuring, for example management of training – one-off-versus-cascade training, modularisation, sequencing and phasing, location, grouping and assessment of trainee learning are not addressed. Nor is training purpose – managerial, technical or awareness-raising? – or level of trainee. A “lesson plan” – hardly a “design” concept – to illustrate 1.5 days of “far-transfer” training for “team-building” (Figure 5.3, pp. 154-55) flouts espoused ISD design principles. It lacks a basis in NA, objectives, participant information and evaluation strategy. A “pre-questionnaire” is not explained, nor is sequencing of activities related to handling marbles, balls and trolleys! A delivery concept viz. “advance organizer” is slipped in without explanation (p. 163) or featuring in the glossary. Some design issues are discussed in chapter 6 as implementation issues. Only eight key terms and concepts are listed – none refers to design issues as identified in this review!

Chapter 6 does not show how any specific design is implemented. It essentially reviews training methods and the training room environment. Structured and un-structured on-the-job training are discussed, but their essential difference in process is not explained. Classroom strategies are described, including lectures, discussions, audio-visual media, experiential methods – case study, games and simulations, role playing and computer-based training. Issues of preparation of trainees and trainer, presentation, handling responses, feedback and assessment are not mentioned; professional commitment and “artistry” are not illustrated.

There is no obvious connection between chapters 6 and 7, on “evaluation”. The adopted definition – “the systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective training decisions related to the selection, adoption, value, and modification of various instructional activities” (Goldstein, 1980, p. 202) – recognises “formative” evaluation as means to quality improvement of training processes, but chapter 7 is essentially about the under-utilised Kirkpatrick model and its rivals, and return on investment, a summative issue. Evaluation of training process, inputs and organisational context is not discussed, nor is it shown how evaluation data relate to the presenting problem that NA investigated, and with what success. Overall then, part 2 does not represent ISD as a system, do justice to its components or explain their inter-relationship. It offers managers and trainers little practical guidance on its effective use.

With regard to (b), authors certainly acknowledge criticisms of ISD in passing – questioning NA feasibility and acknowledging restricted scope of behavioural objectives – because “increasing number of HRD interventions (that) deal with changing attitudes and emotions” (p. 146). They report concerns about ISD's continuing relevance when many jobs are less prefigured, or well-defined than formerly. But implications for managing learning are not seriously considered. Comfort is taken from ASTD (2010) survey data that shows a majority of HRD staff believes that ISD would “become more important in the next five years” (authors' italics, p. 134). Why so, is not explained. The definition adopted (chapter 3) allows for informal learning – that ISD itself may give rise to! – but the opportunity to explain its significance is not taken; nor are “constructivist”, “tacit” and “situated” learning acknowledged, or knowledge management. Despite lengthy debate, too the glossary provides a standard academic definition of “knowledge”: “an understanding of factors or principles related to a particular subject”!

Finally, leaving aside whether evaluation is “research”, its purpose is conveyed as to provide summative “proof” of effectiveness of HRD interventions using quantitative research designs – “a plan for conducting an evaluation study” (p. 220) – (though hypothesis testing is not mentioned). As acknowledged in every chapter, research rarely does so. Indeed it cannot, because controlling for, and measuring relevant variables is intrinsically difficult; increasing sample size, as advocated in Appendix 7-1 (11 pp.) is but a partial solution. Though limitations of experimental, quantitative approaches are admitted, the potential contribution of qualitative or mixed-methods research is barely acknowledged – neither is discussed. Yet, for example cross-case analysis of replicative studies has validity for showing how and why HRD interventions may work, or not in different settings, that may better promote discussion for HR staff development than reams of statistical data. Needs or “situation” analysis is invariably the first phase of cycle 1 of action research, too – another unmentioned resource. Action research (and evaluation) may encompass hierarchies of objectives. Attainment of intermediate or “enabling” objectives, such as securing agreement on policies for promoting workplace tolerance of diversity may be evaluated to establish progress towards achieving ultimate goals. For a discussion of research's intrinsic relation to HRD practice, see Kuchinke (2012).

Equating ISD with HRD, and, by implication “instruction” with the means to “learning” and improved performance, is hugely problematic. Decisions to use ISD emanate from often opaque policy contexts where consensus on objectives and strategies is lacking, and where line managers and HRD staff may be engaged in bitter power struggles about decision making and who “carries the can” if things go wrong. Role inter-relationships in most enterprises are far from harmonious as implied in chapter 2. The 10-20 percent of training that is effective no doubt reflects ISD principles, not as they are described here, but as experts use them. More account needs to be taken of the range of approaches to research, theories of workplace learning in communities of practice and knowledge management. This text may be an important resource for beginning students, but modelling and explaining quality ISD functioning is required to assist managers and HRD practitioners to realise its potential.

Professor Dr John Dewar Wilson was Foundation Professor of Education at Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia 1992-2000, and Director of Language Australia's adult literacy Node for the State of Victoria. Previously he was Principal Lecturer in Education at Moray House College of Education, Edinburgh and Director of Criteria of Teacher Selection (CATS) project, 1982-1985 that evaluated then current selection practices for pre-service teacher training courses in Scotland, and developed and trialed a principled approach. He directed one of the first international doctoral HRD programs in Thailand at Burapha University, where he currently teaches educational leadership. Since 1982 he has been consultant to national and international aid agencies, principally in Bangladesh, Botswana and Lao PDR promoting professional development of teacher educators and exploring HRD implications of educational sector development frameworks. Professor Dr John Dewar Wilson can be contacted at: jdewarw@gmail.com